History of Economic Thought and the Discipline of Economics in India

History of Economic Thought and the Discipline of Economics in India

M. Usha 1341802

Economic phenomena are diverse and the structures of economies are essentially dynamic and complex, amenable to changes from time to time. Economic universe, on the other hand, has logic of its own. It has an inherent order through which there is a constant exchange between rational human beings, each seeking to attain maximum gain. Economics, as a science, is an attempt to understand this orderly working of the economy, and an individual in his business of life with a goal to maximizing his gain choosing among his innumerable wants with the limited resources he has at his disposal. Most economic thinkers agree with Alfred Marshall, a leading 19th-century English economist, that economics is “a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life; it examines that part of individual and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment, and with the use of the material requisites of wellbeing” (Marshall, 1890). English economist Lionel Robbins, in the 20th century defines Economics as “the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between (given) ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.” (Robbins, 1945)

As the structure of economies change over time, the science of economics also changes as the tools and analytical methods to study the economic phenomena, its working, problems and solutions keep changing. That is the reason, Economics as a science and discipline has always been influenced by the prevailing social structure, system of governance, institutional structures, ethics and norms. For example Kautilya’s “Arthashastra” is based on the then religious, spiritual and social systems, customs and standards. The individualism of the classical economist’s is essentially a product of the industrial revolution.

The systematic study of economics is of recent origin, but economic analysis has always been prevalent across the world in one form or the other. The science of Economics is as old as human life. The initial attempts to study economics as a subject as part of the education system were first made in Europe at the end of the 17th and the beginning of 18th century (Paul, 1999). The effective birth of Economics as a separate discipline may be traced to the year 1776 (Paul, 1999), when the Scottish philosopher Adam Smith, now known as the “Father of Economics”, published An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The Wealth of Nations, as its title suggests, is a book about economic development and the policies that can either promote or hinder it. In its practical aspects the book is an attack on the protectionist doctrines of the mercantilists and a brief for the merits of free trade. The study of economics in India can be traced back as early as 4th B.C when Kautilya came out with his Arthashastra which provides an authoritative account of the political and economic thought that prevailed in ancient India (Paul, 1999).

Historically, Indian economic thought can be divided in to four periods:

1.      Ancient Economic Thought

Ancient Indian scriptures like the Vedas (Rig, Sama, Yajur, Aharva), Upanishads, Brahmanas, epics, Smrities (particularly those of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Shukra, Vidur, Kamandok and Narad) give an account of the ancient economic philosophies. While Arthashastra and Nitishastra deal with production and exchange, Dharmashastra lays down the rules to be followed in consumption and distribution.

Varta and Arthashastra were the set of guidelines as far as material life was concerned. Varta has been defined as a branch dealing with agriculture, commerce, cattle breeding, money lending and artisanship. Arthashastra covered a much wider field with its insights on jurisprudence, politics and economics and life as a whole. Consumption was based on the principle of Kama, Artha, and Dharma ( aesthetic, economic and religious aspects of worldly life) as separated from Moksha ( or the subject related to non-worldly life).

The ancient economic thought recognized the four factors of production, land, labour, capital and organization. Land was regarded as the source of all wealth, with many kings laying down their lives for it.

2.      Medieval Economic Thought

Medieval economic thought was basically shaped by the rulers during that time. Rulers like Ala-ud-din Khilji, Mohammad Tughlaq and Firozshah Tughlaq introduced economic reorganization and improvements during 8th century to 15th century after which Sher Shah Suri and Akbar brought in various transformations.

Alauddin Khilji deliberately controlled the markets in order to keep the  basic necessities of life at a cheaper rate. This was done with an n intention to maintain a large army for his empire and to prevent rebellion on account of dwindling treasury. Mohammad Tughlaq brought in a new system of token coins, which failed as its monopoly could not be maintained. Firozshah Tughlaq realized the role of the state in production and employment way back in and engaged in a large number of public works in the form of construction of canals, public buildings etc. He reformed the taxation system on the basis of the laws of Quran by introducing four types of taxes ( Khiraj, Zakat, Jizya and Khams). Sher Shah Suri graded and fixed land rent as per its productivity and brought in reforms in the land revenue system.

Far reaching changes were brought in by Akbar in the form of reorganization of the revenue system and promotion of state enterprises. While, the rent of the land was fixed on the basis of last ten year’s average price of land, peasants were brought directly under the state by abolishing the power of jagirs.

3.      Nineteenth Century Economic Thought

The foundations of modern Indian Economics were laid in the early British period by the leading thinkers of that time, namely Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt and Gokhale. The economic philosophy was built as a reaction to the misgivings of the British Empire and to bring in systemic changes to eradicate of widespread poverty prevalent that time.

 Their prescription was to bring in a welfare state which would work for the interests of the general public at large. They wanted the heavy tax burden on the Indians to be reduced and the budget surplus to be spent for the betterment of people rather than on military expenses. They advocated the permanent fixation of land tax and the representation of tax payers in the body which controlled the government expenditure.

4.      Twentieth Century Economic Thought

During this time the economic philosophy verged on the practical problems faced by the country rather than on abstract concepts. The prominent thinkers of the time like C. N. Vakil, D. R. Gadgil, Gyan Chand, V. K. R.V. Rao, and R. Balakrishna favored planned economic development by the state and that Laissez Faire is not suitable for India. The balanced utilization of resources suggested the development of agriculture along with all kinds of large scale, small and medium enterprises.

Economics as a subject in India was first advocated by Dadabhai Naoroji but it was Mahadev Govind Ranade who first gave shape to Indian Economics and actually succeeded in establishing it as a separate subject. He is hailed as the “Father of Indian Economics”

B.R. Ambedkar favored radical ideas even in those times by supporting free banking (against monopoly of printing legal tender), gold standard, decentralized planning, individual liberty, private property rights etc. Eminent economists like Rajaji and B. R. Shenoy also advocated economic freedom as against the principally socialist structure prevailing at that time. Unfortunately a lot of those pertinent economic thought by eminent economists like V S Srinivasa Sastri, C. Rajagopalachari, B R Shenoy, N A Palkhivala, Bankimchandra Chattopadhyay, Minoo Masani were marginalized and don’t find mention in the history of economic thought.

Economics as a Discipline of Study in Universities in India:

Economics is essentially a science which deals with the optimum utilization of resources given the fact that human wants are unlimited and there are limited resources with which to satisfy them. It is the science of choice, be it in the household sector, industrial, agricultural, services or the government sector. Economics has broadly two branches: The Microeconomics and Macroeconomics.

Microeconomics deals with the individual units of the economy and its behavior like the individual household, firm, buyer, seller, producer or consumer. Macroeconomics studies the economy as a whole in the form of various sectors, industries its levels of employment, income, monetary policy, fiscal policy and economic growth of the economy as a whole.

Economics is a diverse subject as it deals with human behavior with respect to material pursuits, in his ordinary business of life, which in essence cannot be confined to any one-dimensional thought process. It has its linkages to society, geography, public policy, commerce, management, finance, mathematics and statistics. That is the reason why economics is offered both as a Science and Arts subject in universities at the graduation level. Economics degrees are available as Bachelor of Arts (B.A) and Bachelor of Science (B.Sc) course. As part of the B.Sc course, the emphasis is on statistical methods, quantitative and mathematical application in economic theories and concepts. Economics as part of a B.A course, the emphasis is more on the qualitative aspects of economics theories, concepts and models. Economics is often offered as part of a joint or combined honors degree, paired with subjects including history, sociology, psychology, mathematics, statistics, modern languages and politics. It is also part of diverse courses in law, management, commerce, engineering and computer science. It would be worthwhile to note the history of Economics as a separate discipline in some of the important Universities in the country.

History of the discipline of Economics in some of the Indian Universities:

Punjab University: The University was set up as early as 1882. After the partition of the country, the teaching of Economics in this University was centered in Government College, Hoshiarpur under the guidance of Professor K.K. Dewett. His hands were strengthened by the appointment of Professor S.B. Rangnekar in 1951. The location of the department was shifted to the Chandigarh Campus in 1958 and it continues to be a leading center of teaching, research and learning of economics in the region.
The department has the honor of having produced many well-known economists like Dr. Manmohan Singh (Prime Minister of India), Dr. G.K. Chadha (member Prime Minister's Economic Advisory Council and former Vice-Chancellor, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi) and Dr. B.S. Minhas Research activity in the department can be broadly classified into four groups viz. Industrial Economics, Money, Trade and Finance, Agricultural Economics and Development Studies. (http://economics.puchd.ac.in/)

University of Madras: The University of Madras, Department of Economics, began in 1912, is one of the earliest one to be set up. It was commissioned with a special and non-recurring grant sanctioned by the Government of India to the University of Madras. It was later bifurcated and Department of Econometrics was established in July 1980 (http://www.unom.ac.in/index.php?route=department/department/about&deptid=27) to focus exclusively on the quantitative aspects of the discipline. Since its inception, the department has focused on teaching and research in quantitative economics emphasizing theoretical, methodological and conceptual issues in economics along with applications to socially relevant economic issues and policies.

University of Calcutta : It was established in the year 1914.. It offers courses in MA, MPhil and PhD. Major thrust areas in which both theoretical and empirical research activities are being actively pursued are Urban Economics, Environmental Economics, Economics of the Informal Sector, Trade and Development, Trade and Environment, Agricultural Economics, Gender Studies, Economics of Child Labor, Political Economy, Economics of Education and Development Management. (http://www.caluniv.ac.in/academic/arts_economics.htm#estd)

Delhi University: The Delhi School of Economics is one of India’s premier and most sought after institutes of higher learning in the discipline of Economics. “The school was launched in 1949 by V.K.R.V. Rao, with the support of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. It grew out of a vision that a newly independent nation, which aspired to social and economic progress, needed a vibrant centre for advanced studies in the social sciences. The department of economics, along with its sister departments of geography and sociology, has produced many of the country’s leading academics, educators, administrators, policy makers, corporate leaders and journalists. Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, and the late Sukhamoy Chakravarty, one of the architects of India’s Five Year Plans, have all taught here.”  (http://econdse.org/history/)

GujaratUniversity: It was established in the year 1954 . Currently the department is involved in post-graduate teaching leading to M.A. and M.Phil degrees. “Special areas of specialization include Mathematical Economics and Econometrics, Quantitative Economics, Industrial Economics, Agricultural Economics and Financial Institutions and Markets at M.A. level. At M.Phil level students are offered specialization in Public Finance and Mathematical Economics and Econometrics.”  (http://www.gujaratuniversity.org.in/web/WebDEconomics.asp)

Bangalore University : “The department was established in 1962 in Central College as a postgraduate department of the University of Mysore. In July 1964, with the establishment of Bangalore University, the then Centre of Economics came under the jurisdiction of the new University as the Department of Economics. A three years B.A Economics (Hons.) Course was introduced in 1967 with the aid from Danforth Foundation, USA. The course was modelled on the American pattern, headed by Dr. Quincy Adams. The M.A, Economics course was introduced in 1969 in the Central College Campus. In 1976, the Department was shifted to the Manasa Bhavan in the Jnanabharathi Campus of the University.” (http://www.bangaloreuniversity.ac.in/faculties/arts_dept_economics.aspx)

Conclusion:

Alfred Marshall in his eighth edition of “Principles of Economics” commented that “economic conditions are constantly changing, and each generation looks at its own problems in its own way” (Marshall, 1890). “Economics arose everywhere. But everywhere it was distinctive. Scientific and practical knowledge about the economy was conceptualized and institutionalized in different ways in different places, and for identifiable reasons.”  (http://understandingsociety.blogspot.in/2010/01/disciplines-of-economics.html)

 The education in economics as a whole in the world as well as India has also changed its paradigms in tune with the current state of affairs, trends and developments in the world. The following is a list of top 10 universities in the world in the discipline of Economics: (http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/university-subject-rankings/2013/economics-and-econometrics)

1. Harvard University, United States

2. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), United States

3. London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), United Kingdom

4. University of Chicago, United States

5. University of California, Berkeley (UCB), United States

6. Stanford University, United States

7. Princeton University, United States

8. Yale University, United States

9. University of Cambridge, United Kingdom

10.Columbia University, United States

 References:

http://econdse.org/history/. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2014, from http://econdse.org: http://econdse.org/history/

http://economics.puchd.ac.in/. (n.d.). Retrieved April 13, 2014, from http://economics.puchd.ac.in/: http://economics.puchd.ac.in/

http://understandingsociety.blogspot.in/2010/01/disciplines-of-economics.html. (2014). Retrieved April 12, 2014, from http://understanding.blogspot.in: http://understandingsociety.blogspot.in/2010/01/disciplines-of-economics.html

http://www.bangaloreuniversity.ac.in/faculties/arts_dept_economics.aspx. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2014, from http://www.bangaloreuniversity.ac.in: http://www.bangaloreuniversity.ac.in/faculties/arts_dept_economics.aspx

http://www.caluniv.ac.in/academic/arts_economics.htm#estd. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2014, from http://www.caluniv.ac.in: http://www.caluniv.ac.in/academic/arts_economics.htm#estd

http://www.cssscal.org/top_india.html. (2014, April 12). Retrieved 04 12, 2014, from http://cssscal.org: http://www.cssscal.org/top_india.html

http://www.gujaratuniversity.org.in/web/WebDEconomics.asp. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2014, from http://www.gujaratuniversity.org.in: http://www.gujaratuniversity.org.in/web/WebDEconomics.asp

http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/university-subject-rankings/2013/economics-and-econometrics. (2014, April). Retrieved April 12-04-2014, 2014, from www.topuniversities.com: http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/university-subject-rankings/2013/economics-and-econometrics

http://www.unom.ac.in/index.php?route=department/department/about&deptid=27. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2014, from http://www.unom.ac.in: http://www.unom.ac.in/index.php?route=department/department/about&deptid=27

Marshall, A. (1890). Principles of Economics. Macmillan and Co. Limited.

R.R.Paul. (1999). History of Economic Thought. Kalyani Publishers.

Robbins, L. (1945). An Essay on the Nature & Significance of Economic Science. Macmillan and Co. Limited.

 

How and when Computer Science Emerged as a Discipline in Higher Education

How and when Computer Science Emerged as a Discipline in Higher Education

Sreeja C. S.

Reg no 1345003

PhD Scholar

Christ university

The history of computer science began long before the modern discipline of computer science that emerged in the 20th century, and hinted at in the centuries prior. The progression, from mechanical inventions and mathematical theories towards the modern concepts and machines, formed a major academic field and the basis of a massive worldwide industry. The 1960s was a time of tremendous technological advancement. In the 1960's, computer science came into its own as a discipline, in  the same year the name "computer science" started to gain currency in the USA although not all academics agreed with the name [1].In fact, the term was coined by George Forsythe, a numerical analyst. The first computer science depart- ment was formed at Purdue University in 1962. The first person to receive a Ph. D. from a computer science department was Richard Wexelblat, at the University of Pennsylvania, in December 1965. During this decade, Stanford University also established departments of computer science, ASCII became the standard for 7-bit code information exchange, the Basic programming language was developed, Doug Engelbart invented the mouse, and the US Department of Defence commissioned the Arpanet, the precursor to today's Internet [2] [3].

Computer Science Education In India

In India the initial period 1955 to 1970 was a period of exploration with no specific government policies guiding to technology.The history of the development of computers in India is inextricably linked to the political history of India. The Directorate General of Technical Development of the Governmentof India drafted plans to support manufacture of all varieties of

items.Planning also has some very good features.The first plan realized the importance of higher technical education andfive Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) were planned. Later

the government also set up Regional Engineering Colleges(REC) one in each state of India to provide good quality technical  education. (RECs have now been renamed National Institutes

of Technology (NITs) [4].

Introducing computer in IITK

­

One of the computer installed early in India was an IBM1620 n August 1963 at the Indian Institute of Technoloy,Kanpur (IITK).It was the first computer with a FORTRAN compiler

to be installed in an educational institution in India.It was imported with financial assistance of theUSAgency for International Development (USAID) which channeled the funding through

the Kanpur IndoAmerican Program (KIAP).  KIAP was a consortium of nine major US Universities which assisted establishment of the IIT at Kanpur by sending visiting faculty members

and by assisting in the purchase of equipment.One of the major decisions taken by KIAP was to install a computer at IITK. 

The IBM 1620 was installed and maintained by IBM engineers.KIAP sent Harry D.Huskey of the University of California, Berkeley, and Forman S.Acton and Irving Rabinowitz from the Princeton University to educate the faculty and students of IITK on using the computer. As soon as the IBM 1620 started working a ten day intensive course on programming for the faculty of IITK was designed by this group. Huskey took a proactive step and instead of restrictingthe course to IITK faculty, he invited scientists, engineers, and the faculty members of other institutions in India to attend the course.  Each course had around 60 participants who were given hands on experience in FORTRAN programming and numerical methods.These courses which started in 1963 were conducted thrice a year.  The course was so popular that it was continued till 1975 by the IITK faculty after the American Professors left in 1965.  Over 1500 scientists working in a number of Universities and research laboratories were trained.  IITK  also  pioneered  by  introducing  in  1964  a  compulsory  course  in programming and numerical methods to all engineering students [5][6] [7].

 

Evolution of Computer science as a discipline in IITK

Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur was the first Institute in India to start Computer Science education. The initial "computer-related" courses were started at IIT Kanpur in August 1963 on an IBM 1620 system installed in the nation's first "computer classroom," a novelty then even in many North American and European universities. Gradually, the Institute drew upon some of the brightest young Indians in Computer Science to serve on its faculty and initiated an independent academic program in 1971, leading to Ph.D. and M. Tech. degrees. The undergraduate program started later, with the first batch graduating in 1983. The department was formally established in 1984. Many of the nation's leading experts, educationists and consultants in computer science today are the alumni of this department[8][9].

 This is the history of how computer science became a discipline in IIT Kanpur. It was a beginning of a new discipline which attracted so many students across India. After that so many universities started computer science as a department which includes Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology and Delhi University etc.

 

Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology

Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad (MNNIT or NIT Allahabad), formerly Motilal Nehru Regional Engineering College (MNREC), is a public higher education institute located in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India. The college has distinction of being first in the country to start an undergraduate programme in Computer Science & Engineering in 1976-77.It is one of the National Institutes of Technology, and like the rest of them, classified as an Institute of National Importance. In the survey carried out by ET Now-Economic Times jointly, MNNIT Allahabad was declared as the best engineering institution of North India and ranked No.1 in overall ranking[10].

 

Delhi University

 Department of Computer Science was established in University of Delhi, in the year 1981, with the objective of imparting quality education in the field of Computer Science. With rapidly evolving technology and the continuous need for innovation the department has always produced quality professionals, holding important positions in Information Technology industry in India and abroad. The Department started the three year Master of Computer Applications (MCA) programme in the year 1982, which was among the first such program in India [11][12].

 It is concluded that the initiatives taken by the government in the late 70s to promote  education  in  IT, setting  up  of  R  and D  centers  and funding  a  large number  of  research  projects with the assistance of the United Nations.Development Programme (UNDP) provided the human resources which enabled the IT industry to grow. Now many colleges have computer science as department like other natural sciences. Most of the universities are working on major research projects on computer sciences as well.

References

 

1 G.K. Gupta "Computer Science Curriculum Developments in the 1960s".

2. https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~shallit/Courses/134/history.html.

3.https://www.computer.org/portal/web/about/History-1960s.

4. V.Rajaraman ,"History Of Computing In India" (1955-2010).

5 http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/

6 http://www.iitk.ac.in/infocell/flier/cse1.pdf

7. http://www.iitk.ac.in/inf HISTORY OF COMPUTING IN INDIA

8. E.C.Subba Rao, "An Eye for Excellence: Fifty Innovative years of IIT, Kanpur", Harper‐

     Collins, India, New Delhi, 2008.

9.Ross Bassett, "Aligning India in the Cold war Era: Indian Technical Elites, the Indian 

    Institute of Technology at Kanpur and Computing in India and the United States", 

    Technology and Culture, Vol.50, Oct. 2009, pp.783‐810.

10 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motilal_Nehru_National_Institute_of_Technology_Allaha  bad

11.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dept._of_Computer_Science,_University_of_Delhi

12. http://www.mnnit.ac.in/index.php/institute/2011-06-27-07-44-36.html

13. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computer_science

History of Mechanical Engineering

 

1)      Abstract

Mechanical Engineering is probably the forerunner of many branches of Engineering. The History of Machines embraces a very broad period of the history of mankind, and can be studied from many perspectives. The seeding of Mechanical engineering started at ancient time and gradually progressed through the medieval time with the mankind. At different points of time, many people contributed a lot (say Archimedes, Newton, Arabs, Chinese etc.) and it grew very fast. Industrial revolution started at many places of the world which made the progress faster. Now Mechanical engineering is a fully developed science which handles enormous quantity of knowledge and machinery to make the life safe and comfortable.

 

2) Mechanical Engineering in ancient time

 

Many studies reveal that the evolution of Mechanical engineering started in China much before than in Europe till 16^th century. Extremely, ancient documents like the “Kao Gong Ji” (“Book of Diverse Arts”, 770-221 BC), reveal a concern for the development of science in all its forms: Astronomy, Biology, Mathematics, Physics and Engineering. Numerous written examples followed this work; compendiums on war machines, agricultural and hydraulic machines, textile machinery, clocks and automations follow one another through countless pages of diagrams and explanations; which dates from 2600-1100 BC and Su Song’s astronomical clock built in 1089, which, with its more than four hundred parts was undoubtedly a technological wonder.

 

Applications of Mechanical Engineering is evident in ancient and medieval period throughout the mankind. Many discoveries and works of Archimedes ( 287 BC – 212 BC ) have contributed  a lot to Mechanical engineering field. Widely known Archimedes principle was a turning point in the engineering field. He developed a screw mechanism to pump leaked water from the ship and the same principle is used in the screw pump, now a days. The claw of Archimedes also known as the ship shaker was an engineering marvel.  The claw consisted of a crane-like arm from which a large metal grappling hook was suspended. When the claw was dropped onto an attacking ship the arm would swing upwards, lifting the ship out of the water and possibly sinking it. Modern days experiments proved that it can be a reality. Focusing of sun light using mirrors to burn enemy ships was another invention by him.  In 2005 a number of Massachusetts Institute of Technology students conducted the experiment and proved that this is possible under certain conditions. He designed some pulley system to help sailors to lift heavy items which was otherwise very difficult to move.

Hero (or Heron ) of Alexandria (BC 10 – 70 AD)was an ancient Egyptian mathematician and  engineer who contributed a lot to the engineering field. He is considered as the greatest experimenter of antiquity. He is the inventor of first recorded steam engine. The first vending machine also is one of his many constructions.

3) Mechanical Engineering in Medieval time

During the years from 7th to 15th century, the era called the Islamic Golden Age, there were remarkable contributions from Muslim inventors in the field of Mechanical technology. Islam spread to the confines of the known world during the Middle Ages and Arabic became the vehicle of culture in its area of influence. The “House of Wisdom”, founded in Baghdad (9th C), contributes to the apparition of the book entitled “Ingenious Devices” written by the three Banu Musa brothers, whose pages contain the diagrams of one hundred machines and mechanisms. Some machines were copies of those produced by Hero and Philo but many others were improvements of these or new models.

 

Al Jazari (1136– 1206) the Muslim polymath, in his “Book of knowledge of ingenious Mechanical devices” in 1206 discussed 100 Mechanical devices along with instructions on how to construct them.  These include  fountains, clocks, water wheels and automatons with a precision of detail in both drawings and explanations that had been unknown up to that time. His machines reveal an increase in complexity that turned out to be not only useful but also of spectacular appearance, as was the case of the elephant clock that combines Mechanical engineering and design in equal parts.

 

The Re-birth of Western Europe in the14th, 15th and 16th centuries marked a stage of renewed activity and vitality on a level of arts, sciences and literature, as it was sought to leave behind the stagnation of the Middle Ages. Unlike what happened in the Middle Ages, the opening up of Renaissance society paved the way to the spread of machines. The 15th century can be taken as the high period of machine development, with celebrities like Leonardo da Vinci and Francesco Di Giorgio whose success was partly due to an environment that was open to their creativity and new ideas. Parallel to this, an interest in the theoretical aspects of machines led to a recovery of the knowledge of Antiquity with the study of authors from the Greek and Roman culture.

 

The publication of knowledge in the form of treatises began at the end of the 15th century. A first line of activity was the study of machine mechanics as an application of physics, by well-known figures such as Guidobaldo del Monte and Galileo Galilei. The second line consisted of a development towards a discipline in the shape of a rational collection of machines, outstanding of which were the machine collections of the aforementioned Francesco Di Giorgio and Agostino Ramelli

The Machine Renaissance, from Italy, spread throughout Western Europe from the second half of the 15th century with outstanding works such as Georgius Agricola’s “De Re Metallica” and Jacobus Strada’s “Kunstliche Abris allerhand Wasser” .

 

The printing press was a decisive factor in the dissemination of these treatises. Not only the text but also the accompanying illustrations attained a quality hitherto unknown in the previous books on machines that had been painstakingly copied by scribes. Although some significant treatises have survived to the present in the form of manuscripts, most authors published printed books whose readers no longer needed to belong to the privileged classes. Machine knowledge became popular and spread on a qualitatively different scale from previous periods.

 

Important breakthroughs in the foundations of Mechanical engineering occurred in England during the 17th century when Sir Isaac Newton both formulated the three Newton's Laws of Motion and developed Calculus, the mathematical basis of physics. Newton was reluctant to publish his methods and laws for years, but he was finally persuaded to do so by his colleagues much to the benefit of all mankind. German mathematician and philosopher, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 – 1716) is also credited with creating Calculus during the same time frame.

4) Mechanical Engineering during Industrial revolution

This period in history arose after the accumulation of knowledge from preceding eras and due to the coming together of a series of factors that resulted in a period of continuous advancement and progress that led to a change of focus, both social and engineering. The construction of the steam engine by J. Watt (1736-1819) was a turning point, but on a Mechanical level maybe establishing the search for automation in every field was more important. The machines began to replace people as a result of the new technologies that were being discovered in agriculture, mining or textile industry. A fine example of this generalized progress came about in the sphere of textile engineering, where developments arose in every field (spinning, weaving and sewing, by the men like Arkwright, Hargreaves and Crompton). The industrial evolution was continuous and in very few years all industries that were unable to move forward with technology, became obsolete.

Actually the industrial revolution did not spread and appear everywhere at the same speed. For example, while England was the pioneer in introducing mechanized and automated industries,  neighboring  France was caught up in a social conflict that set it aside from this type of progress.

 

During the early 19th century in England, Germany and Scotland, the development of machine tools led Mechanical engineering to develop as a separate field within engineering, providing manufacturing machines and the engines to power them. The first British professional society of Mechanical engineers was formed in 1847, Institution of Mechanical Engineers. On the European continent, Johann Von Zimmermann (1820–1901) founded the first factory for grinding machines in Germany in 1848.

In the United States, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) was formed in 1880, becoming the third such professional engineering society, after the American Society of Civil Engineers (1852) and the American Institute of Mining Engineers (1871). The first schools in the United States to offer an engineering education were the United States Military Academy in 1817, an institution now known as Norwich University in 1819, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1825. Education in Mechanical engineering has historically been based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science.

5) Conclusion

Comparing the “History of Mankind” with the “History of Machines” reveals a parallel evolution throughout the history. Technical progress has led man to use his imagination and resources not only for his own benefit but also as a way of providing help to the whole mankind. This work has always been done jointly and under the considerable influence of the scientific and political environment of the time. Perhaps the most appropriate example of this type of development is the Industrial Revolution, which, as we have seen, gave way to automated industries and the replacement of men by machines. A “History of Machines” which is also the history of Mechanical engineering will never be complete, but this review will help to understand how the minds of “Mechanical engineers” gradually evolved and changed, adapting to their era while looking to a “beyond” that led them to discover new and improved machines and mechanisms that would become a new step on an endless flight of stairs.

 

6) References

 

a)      http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Wisdom

b)      The evolution and development of Mechanical Engineering  through large cultural areas INVE_MEM_2008_58272.pdf

c)      Wikipedia – Mechanical Engineering

d)     en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria

 

Development of Mathematics in India

Development of Mathematics in India

Sameena Tarannum, Reg. no. 1345302, Research Scholar, Christ University

A Philosopher and Mathematician René Descartes (1596-1650) said "Mathematics is a more powerful instrument of knowledge than any other that has been bequeathed to us by human agency."

Mathematics is generally presented 'ready-made' to students with procedures, methods and applications in systematic and logical order. However, like any other academic subject, Mathematics also has a history which is rich in astonishing inventions and breakthroughs. This history gives a narrative and human context which adds colour and context to the discipline.  

Starting from the representation of numbers, through the methods of arriving at the solutions of unknown equations, to the expansion of classy techniques in managing the infinite and the infinitesimals, there has been an extensive variation in the choice of approaching, visualizing and understanding the problems and solutions amongst the Mathematicians.

The aim of this essay is to present a critical overview of Mathematics education in higher education level in India which typically refers to Mathematics taught at the undergraduate and post-graduate levels and would also cover research Mathematics. Only a tiny fraction of the Indian population (1.2 billion strong) enters higher education and is expanding rapidly over a last decade. India is therefore faced with the triangle of quality, quantity and equality.

 Mathematics in India has a very extended and consecrated history. Sulbasutras, the oldest existing texts (prior to 800 BCE) clearly state and make use of the so-called Pythagorean theorem. By the time of Aryabhata (c. 499 CE), the Indian Mathematicians were fully acquainted with most of the Mathematics that we currently teach at the elementary level in school. Starting with Aryabhata in the 5th century and extending up to Narayana Pandita of the 14th century, the Indian Mathematicians have blazed a trial in the study of several branches of Mathematics that include obtaining recurrence relation for the construction of sine table, finding solutions to unknown equations.

In the valley of the Indus river of India, the world's oldest civilization had developed its own system of Mathematics. The Vedic ShulbaSutras show that the earliest geometrical and Mathematical inquiries amongst the Indians arose from certain requirements of their religious rituals. Although Vedic mathematicians are known primarily for their computational genius in Arithmetic and Algebra, the basis and inspiration for the whole of Indian Mathematics is geometry. The beginnings of algebra can be traced to the constructional geometry of the Vedic priests, which are preserved in the ShulbaSutras.

India has the third largest higher education system in the world (after China and the USA) suggests that there is a great deal of Mathematics around as well. India is also home to some institutions where world class research in Mathematics is carried out. A sturdy group of Indian Mathematicians have been contributing to the growth of many areas of Mathematics. The legendary genius Srinivasa Ramanujan has inspired and stimulated generations of young Indians towards taking up Mathematics as a calling.

From twentieth century, Mathematical Sciences is growing exponentially. In India, the growth of Mathematical Sciences has not been less spectacular. In the first three decades of twentieth century, only one university, namely, Calcutta University was producing PhD theses and today about a hundred of universities are producing PhDs in Mathematics. In fact, during the first twenty five years of its existence, IIT Kanpur has produced about three times the number of these produced by the entire country in the first five decades of this century.

As mentioned, the first set of theses came from Calcultta University and then followed by Madras University and this had to do great deal with the founding in the Indian Mathematical Society in 1907 which had its headquarters in Madras. However, solemn research started in the year 1927. In this period, we had Srinivas Ramanujan from Madras University who contributed a lot to the world as a well-known Mathematician. 

The credit for starting research in North India goes to Ganesh Prasad who brought some inspiration for it from Calcutta University where he had served as Professor of Applied Mathematics during 1914-1917. He then continued his teaching in Benaras Hindu University from 1917 to 1923 and gave new crescendos to research and founded Benaras Mathematical Society which was renamed to Bharat Ganit Parishad.  Bombay University was started at the same time as Calcutta and Madras universities but it produced its first PhD thesis in Mathematics in the year 1942. 

The Indian Statistical Institute also contributed to the development of Operations Research in India by Prof. Mahalanobis. Two other centres Defence Science Organisation and Delhi University laid research in the same field and this led to the founding of the Operations Research Society of India. Research in Applied Mathematics developed greatly due to the starting of five Indian Institutes of Technology, the strengthening of Mathematics departments in regional colleges of engineering and the setting up of the Department of Applied Mathematics in Indian Institute of Science at Bangalore.

The most prestigious school of Mathematics is at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Bombay. During more than four decades of its existence, this school has done tremendous work of international standards in many areas of pure Mathematics.

All these universities have contributed immensely and these have laid a foundation to the development of Mathematics in all the universities in India.

 

References:

[1] J. N. Kapur, "Development of Mathematical Sciences in India during the twentieth century," International Journal of History of Science, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 389-407, 1992.

[2] M. McCartney, "History of Mathematics in higher education curriculum," Mathematical Sciences HE curriculum Innovation Project, 2012.

Computer Science Education - a Historical Perspective by Balaji V (1345001)

Computer Science Education – a Historical Perspective

Introduction

The electronic computer was developed in 1940s, and has changed in many ways the functioning of the world. It is classified as one of the top ten greatest inventions of mankind. Today, we cannot even think to live without a computer in its traditional form or as a handheld device.

The history of computers in education has been characterized as an “accidental revolution” or “unthinking man and his thinking machines”. The computer has changed the saying that “necessity is the mother of invention” to “in a computer world, invention is the mother of necessity”. Some of the most provocative and inspiring ideas in the history of education have been created by the creators of the computer science field [6].

Prof. V Rajaraman, the renowned Indian author of many programming languages text books, in his article on “Computer Science Education in India” [1], highlights the goals of an education program in Computer Science, with the following statements:

·         To fulfil the manpower needs in the field of Computer Science to ensure the Country’s economic advancement.

·         To popularize the use of Computers in engineering design for applications like, design of Civil Structures, Electrical Machines and Chemical Plants. This will accelerate the development of the design process and end up in improved productivity.

·         To become self-reliant in Software Development, which demands intellectual labour and India is abundant in this factor.

·         To create the manpower for Designing, Manufacturing and Maintaining Computer Systems.

·         To facilitate the use of Computers in Research & Development in India.

·         To develop special continuing Education Programs for Managers, Engineers, Scientists, Administrators and General Public to learn the potentials of Computers and facilitate them to use the same as they had had their formal education in the pre-computer era.

He has provided indicative syllabi for many of these courses and concluded this article mentioning that the potential of the Computer Science field be utilized in the rapid industrial development of the country and in achieving our social goals also.

This essay discusses the applications of Computers, the impact of Computers in the field of Education and how the penetration of computers into institutions happened in the chronological order.

Computer’s entry into India

India bought its first computer in 1956 for a high sum of Rs. 10 lakh. Named HEC-2M, it was installed at Calcutta’s Indian Statistical Institute, where India’s weather forecasting model, based on statistical analysis of meteorological data, was developed. The same machine was used to design the next generation of computers, including India's first indigenous computer, the ‘TIFRAC’ (or Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Automatic Computer), in 1962 [7].

By world standards, India is behind many countries in the field of Education. Central and state governments make consistent efforts to raise the literacy rate. The main obstacles are the huge population and the unavailability of good, trained teachers to reach out to this population. Computing technology comes handy to solve these kinds of problems.

Need: The Scientific Information Explosion

We are experiencing a scientific information explosion, which has not been sensed in the other disciplines. Today, scientists and engineers use computers to access the rapidly growing data bases that store numbers, words, maps, chemical and physical structures and they search them millions of times a year. The base of scientific knowledge today is huge. It is estimated that it would take 22 centuries to read the annual biomedical research literature or seven centuries to read a year’s chemical literature [2].

An unmanned Soviet satellite, Sputnik was launched on October 4^th 1957 in the orbit around the Earth, which provided scientists with valuable information. The propagation of its radio signals gave information about the ionosphere and the density of the upper atmosphere. More such information stirred national interest in educational reforms and thus began the “golden age” of education. Major national efforts were made to reform education [6].

Fresh modes of communications such as radio, film, television and computers created an information-rich society. Schools have to transform into knowledge centers and compete for student attention. Additionally, the new emerging educational technologies were to become an important catalyst for rethinking education. The rethinking started some time in 1960s though the inventions in Computers and Computing had started in 1940s.

Computers in Education

At Dartmouth, USA, in 1963, John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz transformed the role of computers in education from primarily a research activity to an academic one [6]. In the same year, at Stanford, Patrick Suppes and Richard Atkinson established a program of research and development on computer–assisted instruction in mathematics and reading. They sought to create a new system to free the students from group–paced instruction and use individualized, instructional strategies with feedback. These programs facilitate students to take an active role in the learning process and Mastery was obtained through drill–and–practice.

Computer–aided Education this way proceeded to the MIT – Massachusetts Institute of Technology, University of Michigan, Carnegie Mellon University and other well-known institutions. The penetration of computers into Education as an aid has been facilitated by many reputed Indian institutions which are discussed below.

Role of the IITs:

The Indian Institutes of Technology at various locations in the country have been the pioneer to bring in Computer Science in to the formal education stream in India. They offer both graduate and post graduate courses in Computer Science & Engineering, and facilitate active research through MS, PhD and Post-Doctoral programs. Following are the specifics of each of the institutes.

1.   Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur

This was the first Institute in the country to start Computer Science education in August 1963 on an IBM 1620 system [4]. The department continues to lead the nation in terms of excellence in research and teaching in Computer Science and Engineering.

2.   IIT Bombay

The first computing activity in IIT Bombay started with the arrival of the Minsk II computer in 1967, which had the following configuration: It used 2^nd generation discrete transistor based circuitry, with I/O units as paper tape input-output, and off-line printers. The Computer Center was setup by a team spearheaded by Prof. J.R. Isaac. The Department of Computer Science and Engineering was officially formed in 1982. Active research areas of the department are:

ü  Artificial Intelligence and Natural Language Processing

ü  Computer Networks – Performance modelling

ü  Computer Graphics, Computer Vision and Image Understanding

3.   IISC Bangalore

The Department of Computer Science and Automation (CSA) is a pioneering academic centre for higher education, research, and innovation in computer science, which was created in 1969 and was initially called the School of Automation. The department states its vision as “To enable India’s excellence in the world of computer science and automation”. The “Supercomputer Education and Research Centre (SERC)” functioning at IISc conducts research in the following domains:

      Theoretical Computer Science

      Computer Systems

      Intelligent Systems

4.   Department of Computer Science and Engineering, IIT Madras

The Department was started in 1973 with the acquisition of an IBM 370 Mainframe Computer, the then most powerful computer in India. The courses offered then were, M.Tech, M.S and PhD and the B.Tech degree programme was started in the year 1983. The student strength of the department has now grown to about 400, with 50 full-time engineers working on R&D projects. Vision of the department is stated as “Global Excellence and Local Relevance in research, teaching, and technology development”.

5.   IIT Delhi

The department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi started Computer Technology as a course in 1976, which was even before the establishment of Computer Science & Engineering department. Courses offered were PhD, M.S. (Research) and M.Tech. The later established department of Computer Science and Engineering is now renowned for cutting edge research and for imparting state of the art education to the students of B.Tech, M.Tech, M.S. (Research) and PhD.

6.   IIT Kharagpur

The Department of Computer Science & Engineering was initiated in the year 1980 and it has played a pivotal role in developing and deploying the technology for one of the largest telemedicine networks in India. Apart from the graduate and post graduate programs, the Department has been engaged with considerable research work in

Ø  Medical Imaging, Digital image processing, Medical Informatics and Multimedia Databases

Ø  Assistive learning for the physically challenged

Ø  Cryptography and information security

Ø  Technology for VLSI CAD

Ø  Software Engineering

Pune University

The Department of Computer Science of Pune University is one of the earliest CS Departments started in Indian Universities. When computer science was little known and the word IT did not exist, the department started a one–year programme [B.Sc. (Applied) degree in Computer Science] in 1980. Other programs include, M.C.A. in 1983, the M.Tech. in 1985 and M.Sc. Computer Science in 1986.

University of Delhi

In the year 1981, University of Delhi with an objective of imparting quality education in the field of Computer Science, established its department of Computer Science. The Department started the three year MCA program in 1982, which was one of the first in India. Following are the other courses offered by the department:

§  M.Sc. Computer Science

§  Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)

§  B.Tech. Computer Science and B.Sc. (H) Computer Science through its constituent colleges.

University of Mysore

In the year 1986, the University of Mysore with the support of DRDO, Ministry of Defence, Government of India, started the department with a Post Graduate programme in Computer Science (M.Sc.) mainly to cater to the demands of good software engineering in DRDO labs all over the country [8]. The Department of Studies in Computer Science was formed in the year 1991 and subsequently, MCA was started in 1992.

Bangalore University

The Department of Computer Science & Applications was established in the year 1986. It started with a P.G Diploma in Computer Science followed by MCA program in 1989 and M.Sc Course in 2006.

Computer Science in School Education

CBSE, the Central Board of Secondary Education, India, has included Computer Science in its Curriculum 2005, for students of XI and XII standards. Earlier in March 2004, the board’s proposal for “Work Education in Schools” included “Computer Applications” as an elective for class VI–XII[3]. Many state governments[5] have also incorporated similar changes in their secondary and higher secondary curriculum for the inclusion of many flavours of this subject like, Computer Science, Informatics Practices and Multimedia and Web Technology.

The Department of School Education & Literacy under the ministry of HRD, Government of India has framed “The Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Schools” Scheme in December, 2004 to provide opportunities to secondary school students. This is to mainly build the necessary skills in students and make them learn through the process of computer aided learning (CAL).  The Scheme provides support to States/Union Territories to establish computer labs on sustainable basis.  It also aims to set up smart schools in KendriyaVidyalayas and NavodayaVidyalayas.

CSI

Computer Society of India is the first and largest body of computer professionals in India. A group of computer professionals started it on 6^th March 1965 and has now grown to be the national body representing computer professionals. Across India, it has 71 chapters, 418 student branches, and more than 90,000 members [9].

Summary & Conclusion

The information and data provided in this write–up though not exhaustive, is expected to serve the reader as a ready reckoner into the topic of “permeation of Computers in to Education in the Indian subcontinent”. It starts with the very basic history of invention of computers, describes their importance to and applications in human life, and discusses how various educational institutions explored the opportunities to include Computer Science into their curriculum and operations. It also examines in short the impact of Computers in school education and described one popular professional organization, CSI and its activities.

References:

1.      The Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers, “Computer Education in India, Past, Present and Future”, Edited by Dr. Utpal K. Banerjee, Concept Publishing Company, 1996.

2.      Bernier, C. L., “Reading Overload and Cogency”, Information Processing and Management, 14, (1978), pp. 445-452.

3.      Work Education in Schools, published by CBSE (Central Board of Secondary Education), March 2004.

4.      Websites of CBSE, IIT Delhi, IIT Madras, IIT Kanpur, IIT Kharagpur, IIT Bombay and IISC, Bangalore. [http://cbse.nic.in/, http://www.iitd.ac.in/, http://www.iitm.ac.in/, http://www.iitk.ac.in/, http://www.iitkgp.ac.in/, https://www.iitb.ac.in/, http://www.iisc.ernet.in/]

5.      Official Website of School Education, Govt. Of Uttarakhand.

6.      “Computers in Education: A Brief History”, THE Journal, Date: 06/01/1997.

7.      Makarand Bhonsle, “Computer Technology in India”, web resource accessed on 30^th March 2014:  http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/Radioserials/Computer Technology in India.pdf.

8.      Website of Mysore University (Department of Computer Science): http://www.uni-mysore.ac.in/computer-science/

9.      Website of Computer Society of India, CSI : http://www.csi-india.org/. Kanyakumari Chapter : http://csi-cape.org/rsc/conference.php.