HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION - Rukmini Divakar

HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION (SWE)

OUTLINE of THE ESSAY

Ø  Introduction (opinions of different contributors to Social work education)

Ø  History (How social work emerged as a profession leading to formal education system-UK,USA and INDIA)

Ø  Conclusion (criticisms & emerging trends in Social work education)

Introduction

I begin by stating Prof S R Moshini’s words “The historical evolution of under graduate SWE in India and US is traced, indicating how it has developed in the US as a part of the professional stream, while in India it is neither there nor here, not accepted as a professional course, yet not rejected as it is considered convenient though not essential.”In India we have colleges offering this as a course but its substantial value is yet questionable as some start of their career at a good pace and most of them are left behind where they started.

Quoting  Prof.Ranade, according to him “ the important and expanding role of voluntary organizations, as well as social activists, in developing country like ours and the need to extend a helping hand” by professionals needs to be recognised. He lays emphasis on the idea that if we should focus on providing professional help to the people who require it and not any other common man or people of other profession help in them but we should take a brave step to stand forward that way it will motivate the development of SWE. He also says that we should distinguish ourselves (professional social workers) from the social scientists, both their concerns are the same but ours is deeper than theirs. The five year plans of our country have also played a major role in shaping the SWE states Dr. D. Paul Choudhry as this will create drastic changes and impact on the curriculum of social work as the need of the hour is to shift from welfare perspective to developmental perspective. To make an exact curriculum in SWE is difficult as the boundaries are large and continuously changing. There are about 10 institutions India which provide UG education in Social work. The position and contents of these courses are continuously subjected to changes.

SWE includes field work, regular classes, research and updating according to the current status of the societal requirements. Field work has its own impact as it helps the students in developing the skills that would help them to get a strong career. The field work curriculum has undergone drastic changes as the areas are vast leading to specializations such as medical and psychiatry, Human resources, community development and so on like the institute in Bangalore , NIMHANS provides professional training and orientation in the medical and psychiatry specialization.

 

 

 

History

This can be seen from the perspective of USA and UK who provided much of a contribution to the development of SWE.

In USA it is divided into 5 stages or periods

ü  The colonial period- 1620-1776

ü  Civil war and Industrial revolution (1776-1860)

ü  Industrialism- the Human side (1860- 1900)

ü  Social work seeking professional Characteristic (1900-1930)

ü  Highly professional discipline (1930)

In each of these periods different developments took place that led to the SWE highlighting the main points

ü  Alm houses were established for assisting disabled and as a work house for able-bodied paupers which took care of health problems of its inhabitants (Bellevue and Philadelphia hospitals in USA trace their history with these homes)

ü  Associations were formed for the function of charitable aid or mutual benefit were also formed on the basis of national origins and church associations

ü  By 1877 the most important contribution to modern social work was the charity organization society movement that was organized in Buffalo whose result was establishment of Settlement houses through settlement house movement

ü  1909-National Association for advancement of the coloured people and in 1010 National urban league was established.

ü  The depression of 1929 was turning point in the relief policies of the US leading to federal emergency relief act 1933

Beginning of SWE in USA

All the above pushed the need for professionalism of social work and Mary E Richmond can be considered as the first professional social worker in the USA. In 1897 in the national Conference of charities and corrections in Toronto, she advocated the establishment of training school for professional social workers followed to this New York school of Philanthropy was established which is today known as Columbia School of Social work. In 1901 Chicago school of Civics and philanthropy was established and was soon affiliated with the University of Chicago. Hence this was the beginning where it was realized that we must integrate social work as a professional course and award a degree for the same. The third School of Social work was established in Simmons College of Social work in Boston which was pioneer in medical social work. Then in 1919 the American Association of Schools of Social work was established to facilitate the administration amongst the schools of social work. In 1952 the Council of social work education (CSWE) was established to accredit the SWE in USA

 

 

In UK it is divided into 7 stages or periods

ü  Primitive stage

ü  1200 A.D to 1500

ü  1501 to 1600

ü  1600 to 1834

ü  1835 to 1905

ü  1906 to 1944

ü  1948 on wards

In each of these periods different developments took place that led to the SWE highlighting the main points

ü  The Elizabethan Poor law, 1601 divided poor into categories and provided them with the appropriate services by having a logical relief system

ü  The mid of 19^th century Charity Organization Society was established  leading to the idea of setting up voluntary organizations by adapting Community Organization and Casework methodologies for solving people’s problems.

ü  Then came the Settlement House Movement in 1867 which focused at educational and cultural development of the poor people

ü  In 1905 The poor law Commission recommended further deep developments and services of the categories of the poor which led to passing of the meals cat 1906, the education act 1908 , prevention of crime act 1908 ,the Children’s Act 1912 and so on

ü  Then came the Beverridge Report  based on which British has built its social insurance programmes

Beginning of SWE in UK

In the year the education act was passed one of the main Universities recently completed 100 years in offering Social work had begun professional training for social and philanthropic work. The University of Birmingham was established in the year 1900. In 1918 JUCSS (Joint Council for Social studies) was established whose aim was to coordinate the social studies departments across Britain. During 1920 there was a massive explosion of intake of social work professional across Britain which made the enrollment into professional training for social work even higher. World War 1 and 2 also made drastic changes in the demand for the course and at that they titled it training in Public and Social work. The demand for qualified social workers was on a rise which led to improvement in curriculum that focused on field work and research. Also in 1970 British Association of Social workers (BASW) and Center Council for education and training in Social work was established (CCTETSW) Through this  two professional awards were made available to social work students - the Certificate of Qualification in Social Work (CQSW) and the Certificate in Social Services (CSS) for social care staff. Following to this they also offered their one year and two year courses at postgraduate diploma or Masters level and  a four year social work degree with for a period which provided two years of social work training after a two year programme in social sciences. The late 1960's and early 1970's was a period of global radical political action. GSCC (General Social care Council) replaced CCTETSW to regulate and oversee the Social work education and registration. April1st 2003 marked the most important year as it was the first time that professional social workers could register and work.

Eighty-three universities offer social work courses and the Guardian’s University Guide 2013 league tables puts Brunel, Oxford Brookes and Leeds universities at the top. According to figures from Ucas, the universities' admission body, 5,866 students were accepted on to a full-time undergraduate course this year – a slight drop from 6,114 in 2011. There was also a fall in the number of students starting social work foundation courses – which is the equivalent of the first two years of an honours degree, from 1,021 last year, to 820 in 2012.

In India it is divided into 5 stages:

ü  The era of community living

ü  Era of charity

ü  Era of secular reforms

ü  Era of religious reforms

ü  Era of professional training and organization

In each of these periods different developments took place that led to the SWE. Highlighting the main points

ü  The prevalence of Yajna, Havana and Dana in Ancient History of India brings to us the development of the concept of social work perspective form the society.

ü  Then there was the Charter Act of 1813 which promoted education and approved the work of Christian missionaries.

ü  Followed to all this there were great men and women who were struggling to change the current scenario of the society at that time. For ex: Raja Ram Mohan Roy fought to stop ill practices like Sati, Brahmo Samaj, Arya Smaj and so on were established

ü  There were many social reformers who came forward to fight for widow remarriage, eradication of Sati and other evil social existences of the society then through this there were lot of acts passed, Indian Missionaries opened to help the society for its better development.

ü  The theosophical society founded by Madame Blavtsky and Colonel Olcott in Madras began to play a major role in 1893 under the guidance of Mrs. Annie Besant who were defending Hindi rituals and rites. She established Central Hindi College at Benaras.

ü  In 1830 in Bombay Elphinstone Institute took interest in spread of education as a voluntary effort.

ü  In 1880 A.O. Hume suggested that they should have a common platform to analyse the social problems of India

ü  Then Gopal Krishna Gokhale took deep interest and established Servants of the Indian Society in 1905

ü  In 1917 Women’s Indian Association was established in Madras by Dr. Annie Besant and Mrs. Margaret Cousins.

ü  Then there also was the contributions of Mahatma Gandhi towards the upliftment of the society (Untouchability)

ü  All the above led to the establishment of social work as a professional carrier and there was the Social service league that was set up in Bombay without a systematic plan of curriculum, training , etc for the interested candidates

Beginning of SWE in India

ü  In 1936 the need was addressed by Sir Dorabji tata, where his trustees and him established Sir Dorabji Tata graduate School of social work (today know as Tata Institute of Social sciences) Mr. Clifford Manshardt an American Missionary as the first Director of TIS who organised the SWE curriculum and methods which are now followed in all institutions of India

ü  Until 1947 this was the only school providing professional training in social work.

ü  After independence Kashi Vidyapith, Varanasi and College of social service, Ahmadabad was established in 1947 followed by Delhi School of Social work in 1948 and department of Social work Lucknow University in 1949.

ü  In 1953 after the Constitution was framed the Central Social welfare Board was established to promote and strengthen the voluntary efforts in the field of social welfare.

ü  Then in 1960 The association of school of social work in India was established to act as a non official organization in the field of SWE

ü  More than 50 institutions were established before 1988 that provided Certificate course, bachelors’ degree, Masters Degree, diploma, PhD and so on. About 1/3^rd provide PhD courses to the students.

ü  All Institutions before 1967 wee providing 2 years of graduate courses only, it is since 1960’s that we are having UG courses. 

ü  In 1965 the first review committee on SWE under UGC and Union ministry of Education brought in a lot of suggestions to change the system of provision of the degree (UG).

ü  Then in 1980 second review committee on SWE under UGC and Union ministry of Education reviewed 10 UG programmes in Social work which stated that this program needs to be now provided as a professional undergraduate course and not as a minor subject. Nirmal Nikethan then began improving its Masters curriculum

At present there are Universities providing professional training specifically for strengthening the core skills of social workers but a lot more changes needs to be incorporated and the review committee’s suggestions must be implemented. UGC has provided a standard curriculum and a lot more which must be followed by all colleges and universities in India for promoting positive growth in SWE. (For information on this refer http://www.ugc.ac.in/page/Model-Curriculum.aspx )

 

The outlook on June 22^nd 2009 stated that the following are the top colleges providing Social work UG, PG and PhD courses

Rank	Name of Institute	City	Score (1000)
1	Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS)	Mumbai	737.9
2	Delhi School of Social Work	Delhi	486.2
3	College of Social Work, Nirmala Niketan	Mumbai	351.7
4	Xavier Institute of Labour Relations	Mumbai	275.9
5	Madras School of Social Work	Chennai	224.1
6	Institute of Rural Management (IRMA)	Anand	203.4
7	Dept of Social Work, Christ College	Bangalore	186.2
8	Dept of Social Work, Jamia Millia Islamia	Delhi	179.3
9	Dept of Social Work, Pune University	Pune	144.8
10	Dept of Sociology, Mumbai University	Mumbai	131.0
11	School of Social Work, Mangalore University	Mangalore	131.0
12	Dept of Social Work, Lucknow University	Lucknow	127.6
13	Dept of Social Work, Annamalai University	Chennai	120.7
14	Loyola College of Social Sciences	Thiruvananthapuram	110.3
15	IISWBM	Calcutta	103.4

Source: http://www.outlookindia.com/

Conclusion

There are the global standards set up in regard to SWE by IASSW and IFSW which are:

1.     Schools purpose or mission statements

2.     Programme objective and outcomes

3.     Programme curricula including fieldwork

4.     Core curricula

5.     Professional staff

6.     Social work students( admission to retention to exams)

7.     Structure, administration, governance and resources

8.     Cultural and ethnic diversity and gender inclusiveness

9.     Social work values and ethical codes of conduct

This was a major step taken to improve the quality of SWE.It is more likely that Social work is yet a young social science subject which needs more of changes and updations. In India the perception of the word Social work is taken in general terms and hence there falls the lacunae alongside with the below points

Ø  Inadequate qualified staff, insufficient teaching hours, lack of interest from students towards research

Ø  The curricula in the ISSW is a blind copy of the American Social work syllabi

Ø  The pattern of field work is generic and vary from institute to institute

Ø  Field work agencies have their own concept of field work curricula and do not understand that uniformity needs to be maintained.

Ø  SWE should be considered as a part of international social work.

Ø  Implementation of the existing policies and suggestions of Social work associations and Boards.

Ø  Enrollment ratio and awareness of the course must be increased

India celebrated the platinum jubilee of SWE in India, yet the scenario has not changed much since the committee review. A commonality has to be brought in which will reflect the current scenario of social work but at the same time a lot more is happening in colleges offering the courses as mentioned above who are training social work professionals in accordance to the need of the society.

The above essay traced the simultaneous beginning of SWE in USA, UK and India as USA and UK have been great contributors to the development of SWE along with Vietnam, Canada, China and other countries as well.

References

Davis, A. (2008). Retrieved from www.birmingham.ac.uk: http://www.birmingham.ac.uk/Documents/college-social-sciences/social-policy/IASS/100-years-of-social-work.pdf

Hungman, R. (2010). International Perspectives on Social Work Education and Training . In R. Hungman, Understanding International Social work (pp. 115-120). China: Palgrav Macmillam.

Jacob, K. K. (1994). Five Decades of Social work educationin India. In K. K. Jacob, Social work education in India (pp. 1-10). Delhi and Udaipur: Himanshu Publications .

Jha, J. K. (2009). History of Social work. In J. K. Jha, An Introduction to Social work (pp. 16-33 & 182-190). New Delhi and Lucknow: Anmol Publications and Institution for Sustainable development .

Reamer, F. G. (1994). The evolution of Social work Knowledge. Newyork: Columbia University Press.

Should UK universities take social work education more seriously? (2014, March 26). Retrieved from 2014 Guardian News and Media Limited or its affiliated companies: http://www.theguardian.com/social-care-network/2012/oct/01/uk-universities-social-work-education

Singh, S., & S.P., S. (2003). Social work education in next Millennium . In S. Singh, & S. S.P., Social work education in India (pp. 139-143). Lucknow: New Royal Book Co.

 

History of Social Work Education - Gamre Chima R Marak

Introduction

 An assessment of social work education must begin with a look that there have been sweeping changes that has taken place in the national as well as the international level. 

Several individuals have shared their valuable thoughts into the emergence of Social Work as a discipline for education:

Dr Thomas identified some of the emerging fields that social work educators have to concentrate. The identified areas are: gerontology, environment, peace studies, counseling, tribal exploitation, etc. He is of the opinion that is social workers should concentrate on such areas of concern so as not to become irrelevant. In order to develop the social work education, the importance of communication skills is felt and the quality of the atmosphere of the training institutions, which according to Dr Thomas determines the quality of the final product.

Dr D. Paul Chowdhry calls for a curriculum building in social work education, as it is a very difficult task. He adds that the curriculum constructed should be dynamic in nature, and should be a continuous and joint exercise of the academicians, administrators and practitioners and other experts in the field.

Prof. S. B Saxena touches upon important aspects of social work education, and stresses on how each can be strengthened by having a built-in system of feedback. There is a need to sharpen research tools so as to identify the emerging needs and new concerns. Traditionally, the honored method of instruction was ‘blackboard and chalk’. With the exceptional expansion of communication technology, it will be more effective to use the modern technology in social work education. Until 1994, there were ten institutions in India which was providing undergraduate education in Social Work.

Dr. H. Y. Siddique talks on the important models of Social Work, such as “Systems Approach”, “Social Change Approach” and “Neighborhood development” and so on, which enables us to get a clear message as to the extent of the contribution that Social Work provides for the enrichment of the society.

Dr. I. A. Shariff is of the view that great leap has been made by Psychiatric Social Work in India, with the help of NIMHANS, Bangalore. NIMHANS has been providing M.Phil, training programs and research work in Psychiatric Social Work.

History of Social Work

It is being said that ‘Social Work’ is an extension of the earlier types of activities in the last centuries. Even though, Social Work did not seem to exist before the 1860s, certain periods in the history played a role in developing Social Work. The historical development can be divided into the following stages:

        i.            The Colonial Period (1620-1776)

      ii.            Civil War and Industrial Revolution (1776-1860)

    iii.            Industrialism-The Human Side (1860-1900)

    iv.            Social Work seeking professional characteristics (1900-1930)

      v.            Highly Professionalized Discipline (1930 onwards)

In the USA, the existence of Social Welfare Services was present since the establishment of the original thirteen colonies on the eastern sea board in the seventeenth and eighteenth century. Elizabethan Poor Law existed as the basic pattern for extending financial assistance for the people in need.

Beginning of Social Work Education

The first professional Social Worker in United States of America was Mary E. Richmond. She was also the treasurer of Baltimore Charity Organisation Society and later became a practitioner, teacher and a theoretician. In the National Conference of Charities and Corrections in 1897 in Toronto, she advocated towards the establishment of a training school for professional social workers. The Charity Organisation Society of New York started the training course for perspective Social Workers in 1898. A little later, New York School of Philanthropy was created, which is known today as Columbia University School of Social Work.

The Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy was established in 1901, which late on became affiliated to the University of Chicago. It was then realized that education for Social Work should be part of the general University education. Simmons College in Boston was the third School of Social Work to be established. This school in Boston was the pioneer school to develop medical social work.

In 1919, the American Association of Schools of Social Work was founded. Its purpose was to facilitate the communication among the other schools of social work.

In 1867, Edward Edison thought that the distribution of alms or relief did not serve as a solution of the problem. University settlement had three objectives:

        i.            Education and Cultural Development of the poor.

      ii.            Provide information to the students and other inmates of the settle house regarding the poor for the improvement of their conditions for the social reform.

    iii.            To develop consciousness towards social and health problems and the need for enacting legislation.

In 1928, the International Association of Schools of Social Work was founded at the International Conference of Social Work in Paris. The initial number of schools of social work was 51. The association comprised of member schools from different parts of the world.

According to the decision of the Association of Schools of Social Work, it was firmly established that the American tradition of organizing social work education on the graduate level would begin. With the emergence of graduate education in Social work in the United States of America as the only level of professional social work, the existence of the undergraduate programs did not disappear. It continued to meet the demands of the state departments of public welfare. In 1942, the institution organized their courses under the name National Associations of Schools of Social Administration. The Association was able to promote the undergraduate level of social work courses in various parts of United States.

The event then followed several years of discussion between the associations so as to find a basis for agreement with regard to the development and accreditation of the undergraduate education in social work. Thus, leading to the formation of National Council of Social Work Education in 1946. It came to their realization that there was a need for University Education in Social Work, since it represented the progression of social work education from the undergraduate to the graduate years. Study of Social Work in the undergraduate level represented the first stage of preparation for social work; the first year of graduate year represented the second stage; whereas the second year of the graduate year represented the third stage which was necessary for the professional practice. The Post-graduate studies aimed at preparing for the professional leadership in administration, research and teaching, this represented the fourth stage. These stages came to be considered fundamental to any curriculum of social work education.

History of Social Work Education in India

The development of Social Work in India can be presented according to the historical analysis:

        i.            Era of Community Living

      ii.            Era of Charity

    iii.            Era of Secular Reforms

    iv.            Era of Religious Reforms

      v.            Era of Professional Training and Organisation

The organization of formal training for Social Workers started since the nineteen twenties by Social Service League, Bombay.

In the history of Social Work in India, 1936 marks a turning point as the first school of Social Work was started in Bombay under the advice of Dr. Clifford Manshardt of the American Marathi Mission. The school’s name was Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of Social Work, now known as Tata Institute of Social Sciences. The pattern of the school was based on the pattern of Schools of Social Work in the United States of America. It was the only institution of its kind for eleven years.

This was the only institution providing professional Social Work till 1947. After Independence, several schools came up – In 1947, Kashi Vidyapith, Varanasi, and College of Social Service, Gujarat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad was established. Delhi School of Social Work in was established in 1948 and Department of Social Work, Lucknow University in 1949. The Gujarat Vidyapith was founded by Mahatma Gandhi.

The most prominent feature of the Social Work education in India has been the two year training program at the graduate level. In accordance with the international survey on training facilities in social work of 1950, it was noted that most of the countries in the world had only the undergraduate level of social work and not the graduate level, the graduate level education was confined to highly industrialized and economically well developed countries.

From the year 1955, there was a rapid expansion of welfare services and its requirement for trained social work personnel. Many more centers opened for Social Work education. The number of centers was 13 in 1960, grew to 34 in 1978 and to 50 in 1988. All the institutions that were set up before 1967 offered two year professional training in Social Work only on the graduate level. The undergraduate level was started only during the later part of 1960s.

Table: No. of students awarded Bachelor’s, Master’s and PhD Degree in Social Work from 1950 to 1975 in India.

Degree	Boys	Girls	Total
Bachelor’s Degree	1252	577	1829
Master’s Degree	6437	2121	8558
PhD Degree	65	33	98
Total	7754	2731	10485

Different patterns of bachelor’s courses in social work developed in India. Origin of the first pattern was in 1955, when the departments of Sociology and Social Work in Lucknow University introduced social work as an optional subject in Bachelor’s program. Initially, it was not aimed at providing a professional course but to attract students for its Master’s Program in Social Work, which in turn helped in raising the quality and standard of its graduate teaching.

After having sufficient experience in conducting graduate program in social work, Nirmala Niketan had also started the under-graduate program in social work. It was in a better position to provide the link between the two levels of program, which also resulted in the revision and improvement of its Master’s curriculum.

The country saw that the expansion of the doctoral programs in social work was much faster than the bachelor’s program. There were only 5 doctoral programs in social work in 1965, which went up to 11 in 1980.

In India, the Associations of Schools of Social Work was established in 1960, so as to perform as a non-official organization in the field of social work education. Some of the concerns of the Association are:

        i.            Laying down and maintaining proper standards in professional social work education and promoting the profession on scientific lines.

      ii.            Providing opportunity for faculty members to meet and exchange their ideas.

    iii.            Arranging seminar and refresher courses for faculty members.

    iv.            Encouraging and coordinating researches and promoting publication of literature on different subjects relating to social work.

      v.            Disseminating information with regard to social work education.

    vi.            Working as a national forum on all matters concerning social work education.

In India, in the early twentieth century, the phenomenon that appeared was formal training in social work which comprised of a course of lectures and supervised fieldwork. In the wake of nineteenth century, there was the growth of adhoc training courses. The first set of training in social work education was given by Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Bombay.

The schools of Social Work which were established earlier had the expertise and the resources to develop social work education in the under-graduate level and integrate it with the graduate level, but no such initiative was adopted by them. But Rural Institutes of Vishva Bharati and Jamia Millia Islamia converted their Diploma in Rural Services to Bachelor’s degree in Social Work in 1967.

In 1963, the first Review Committee of the Association of the Schools of Social Work in India organized a National Seminar in Bangalore. The seminar was conducted so as to discuss the questions on organizing social work education in the under-graduate level.

In the second Review Committee, it was noted that as the graduate social work education started in India following the American pattern, the Bachelor’s of Social Work program also took inspiration from the American pattern. The American model aimed at:

        i.            Providing the students of liberal education knowledge of social work, which may be useful for the effective carrying out of non-social work jobs.

      ii.            Training students for jobs with social work functions at the intermediate or field levels.

    iii.            Preparing students for graduate education in social work.

Till 2009, the number of Social Work training institution was 41. Bachelor’s degree was still being provided by some, Certificate courses in Social Work, Post-graduate diploma and most of them were conducting courses which were leading to Master’s degree in Social Work. And about one third of them were providing PhD courses. And two of the institutions were providing the highest research degree of D. Litt in Social Work.

Conclusion

It is seen that social work existed since earlier times. Although, its recognition as a profession and as a discipline in education came to be recognized much later. After comparing and contrasting the evolution of undergraduate education in Social Work in U.S.A and India, it is pointed out that the undergraduate program in Social Work developed well in the U.S.A. In India, most institutions that had initially started with an undergraduate program, but eventually developed post-graduate programs too. But rarely, institutions that began with a post-graduate program started an under-graduate program.

It is looked upon at social work education to produce efficient social workers since education is not merely a preparation for career but preparation for life. Through higher education there is a need to improve the quality of social work as a profession and as a discipline in Universities, so as to meet the requisite capacity to face the global problems and the need to make a distinct contribution in the society.

References

Jacob, K. K. (1994). Social Work in India: Retrospect and Prospect. New Delhi: Himanshu Publications.

Jha, J. K. (2009). An Introduction to Social Work. New Delhi: Anmol Publications.

Singh, S., & Srivastava, S. P. (2003). Social Work Education in India: Challenges and Opportunities. Lucknow: New Royal Book Co. 

Exploring the Minds in 'Mahabharata' - A Study of the Experiences during Childhood and Previous Births

The whole purpose of the clues in a mystery are to push us to think beyond what is right in front of us, to make us think of the impossible. We might not know the exact truth behind each and every clue there is, but we might know how those clues glue the pieces of the story. At times, the clues are constructed in a way to add to the ‘fantastic’ aspect of the piece and when these clues or instances transcend the fantastic, we have an epic. It reaches a plane where these events act as the reasons for the actions that follow. They come close to being a truth and though it can be contested, it isn’t. Apart from the events that took place in the epic narrative, Mahabharata, the characters that lived through the events can be studied. As Freud analysed many a patients to locate the origins of their fears, thoughts, personality traits and tendencies, I will attempt to analyse the influence of childhood experiences on the later life of the princes of the ‘Kuru House’. An interesting observation that I came across is that the experiences extend beyond childhood into the previous births as well. Though it might be simple to explain adulthood tendencies based on childhood experiences, the added layer of the influence of previous birth experiences makes this reading somewhat complex.

Freud, in the course of his life and work, proposed and established a number of theories that fall under the psychoanalytic umbrella. One of these suggests that the personality of an adult is formed on the basis of the childhood experiences and instinctual impulses that are ingrained in the mind of that individual.  Though there are many thoughts and impulses that might get stored in the unconscious, never to be accessed, the rest remain set in the mind, to varying degrees. Freud majorly addressed the sexual drives and impulses, but he never dismissed the other instinctual instincts that can arise in a person’s mind. Hence, I would like to apply this theory to the character traits that the princes possess in the later course of the story. For the purpose of this paper, I shall only be exploring a number of selected chapters from the first section of Mahabharata, named ‘Adi Parva’, literally meaning ‘the beginning’. This section establishes most of the character that feature in the entire epic and also, how these people came to be.

The first reference to a consequence of the previous birth presents itself in the first chapter ‘On the Banks of the Ganga’. The scene is that of the queen, Ganga, proceeding to kill her eighth child, just as the King, Santanu stops her. She explains to her husband that she was cursed and that was the reason behind her actions. I’d like to bring the focus to how she explains the King’s desire for her – the reason lying in his previous birth. His desire for Ganga has its roots in his desire for her in their previous birth. There are modern studies that use hypnosis to delve deeper into past-life experiences, but that came later. In my view, with reference to the story I am analysis, the dissection of the mind happens on a more spiritual level in Mahabharata. The theory given by Freud works on a physical and psychological level, but when you introduce a new plane of the spiritual to parallel the rest, it brings forth a lot of questions about whether it is truly applicable. It might be and this paper explores just that. So, coming back to the question of his love for Ganga existing in his present birth, we are now posed with the question of possibility. Can the desires be attached to a particular spirit and then transferred to the body? Then again, someone might ask if the spirit exists in the first place.

The second chapter is a better example for the influence of childhood experiences. It is titled ‘Sixteen Years Later’ with reference to the eighth son, then named Devavrata and later, Bheeshma. The chapter gives evidence of all that Bheeshma learns during his childhood and adolescence. His attitude of striving for more than his potential gives testimony to the decisions he takes later in life, when he turns father to his dead brothers’ sons and then grandfather to their sons. His experience of staying away from his father for those many years might have driven him to be the best father figure that the princes could possibly have. This is reflected first when he first chooses the wives for his brother, Vichitraveerya and then through the ways in which he brings up the princes. He provides them an education far superior to his own when he was as old as them.

The next reference to previous birth comes about in the sixth chapter when one of the princesses chosen for Vichitraveerya, Amba claims that she had already chosen her husband. According to custom, she is no longer eligible to marry Vichitraveerya and hence leaves the palace to return to her chosen one. When he rejects her, she is in a fit of rage and does a penance to be able to take revenge on Bheeshma for reducing her to such a state. In time her perseverance gives way to her being granted a boon that she would be reborn as a man who shall destroy Bheeshma. She is also granted the benefit of remembering the rage that she felt in the present birth when she was to be born again. The whole process of being born in this instance is driven by her rage against Bheeshma. Transcending above a childhood to adolescent trait, she is born all over again to fulfil that impulse. The focus here is then on how the act of transference of an instinct is transformed into the fantastic as an element of an epic.

The twelfth chapter that narrates ‘The Birth of the Pandavas and Duryodhana’ represents the source of their personality traits. It is not based on their childhood experiences; it is based on the God that they are born of, hence raising the question of genetically retaining traits and impulses. That then contradicts that belief that every individual is unique. This is said to have occurred in a time obviously much before Freud gave his theories to the world. So, suggesting that the Pandavas possess certain skills and traits because they were born of a certain person, or entity, in this case, questions the theory itself? Can this epic be dissected then, on the basis of psychoanalysis, when the first step of the process is itself questionable? If the brothers had honed their skills based on a certain drive and if they had chosen a certain role based on a particular instinct they couldn’t explain, this theory would have worked quite well.

The fifteenth chapter marks the conflict and is titled ‘Jealousy: Its First Sprouts’. This is the best example of a childhood experience being the root of Duryodhana’s drive in life. His feeling towards his cousins, the Pandavas, had only been the result of a childish rage of jealousy. If he had let it pass, the story would have taken another course altogether. The fact that his uncle, Sakuni influences him at an early age with the most negative of thoughts leaves this experience embedded in his mind. What was then a childish behaviour results in a violent action on his part when he attempts to kill Bheema. The entire course of Duryodhana’s life is then steered by this one desire that could have dissolved had it not been solidified with his uncle’s words.

The last episode of such a Freudian occurrence is in the nineteenth chapter titled ‘Radheya’ which takes us back to the tenth chapter when he is first born of Kunti and the Sun God. He is given away by Kunti, who was then a young girl and found and brought up by a childless couple. At the age of sixteen, Radheya is troubled by his unusual desire to learn archery which was what he was born to be worthy of. These repressed instincts come back to him in the form on dreams and desires that puzzle him. When he addresses his mother, she tells him the truth about how he was found and that he was, in fact, the son of someone divine. The search for his true identity then leads him away from his adopted parents towards his real home.

Despite the few episodes that actually refer to childhood desires transforming into adult personalities, the question here still remains the same. Where are our desires rooted? In the world we live in, it is all apparently in our mind, but based on my reading of Mahabharata, there are worlds still unexplored and that might not even be capable of being explored out there that leave us thinking. I believe that spirits exist, in the sense that the energy that we leave behind. Maybe that connects us to the next life, if there hopefully exists one and that is another way that our desires and instincts are carried forward. I don’t know if Freud ever read this epic, and if he did, I wonder if he would have had a convincing answer to the same.

 

Bibliography

Mitchell, Stephen A., and Margaret J. Black. Freud and Beyond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought. New York: Basic Books, 1995. eBook.

Psychoanalytic Criticism - https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/722/04/

Subramaniam, Kamala. Mahabharata. 16th. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 2011. 3- 142. Print.

Nandika A.K.

1324140

Exploring the Minds in 'Mahabharata' - A Study of the Experiences during Childhood and Previous Births

The whole purpose of the clues in a mystery are to push us to think beyond what is right in front of us, to make us think of the impossible. We might not know the exact truth behind each and every clue there is, but we might know how those clues glue the pieces of the story. At times, the clues are constructed in a way to add to the ‘fantastic’ aspect of the piece and when these clues or instances transcend the fantastic, we have an epic. It reaches a plane where these events act as the reasons for the actions that follow. They come close to being a truth and though it can be contested, it isn’t. Apart from the events that took place in the epic narrative, Mahabharata, the characters that lived through the events can be studied. As Freud analysed many a patients to locate the origins of their fears, thoughts, personality traits and tendencies, I will attempt to analyse the influence of childhood experiences on the later life of the princes of the ‘Kuru House’. An interesting observation that I came across is that the experiences extend beyond childhood into the previous births as well. Though it might be simple to explain adulthood tendencies based on childhood experiences, the added layer of the influence of previous birth experiences makes this reading somewhat complex.

Freud, in the course of his life and work, proposed and established a number of theories that fall under the psychoanalytic umbrella. One of these suggests that the personality of an adult is formed on the basis of the childhood experiences and instinctual impulses that are ingrained in the mind of that individual.  Though there are many thoughts and impulses that might get stored in the unconscious, never to be accessed, the rest remain set in the mind, to varying degrees. Freud majorly addressed the sexual drives and impulses, but he never dismissed the other instinctual instincts that can arise in a person’s mind. Hence, I would like to apply this theory to the character traits that the princes possess in the later course of the story. For the purpose of this paper, I shall only be exploring a number of selected chapters from the first section of Mahabharata, named ‘Adi Parva’, literally meaning ‘the beginning’. This section establishes most of the character that feature in the entire epic and also, how these people came to be.

The first reference to a consequence of the previous birth presents itself in the first chapter ‘On the Banks of the Ganga’. The scene is that of the queen, Ganga, proceeding to kill her eighth child, just as the King, Santanu stops her. She explains to her husband that she was cursed and that was the reason behind her actions. I’d like to bring the focus to how she explains the King’s desire for her – the reason lying in his previous birth. His desire for Ganga has its roots in his desire for her in their previous birth. There are modern studies that use hypnosis to delve deeper into past-life experiences, but that came later. In my view, with reference to the story I am analysis, the dissection of the mind happens on a more spiritual level in Mahabharata. The theory given by Freud works on a physical and psychological level, but when you introduce a new plane of the spiritual to parallel the rest, it brings forth a lot of questions about whether it is truly applicable. It might be and this paper explores just that. So, coming back to the question of his love for Ganga existing in his present birth, we are now posed with the question of possibility. Can the desires be attached to a particular spirit and then transferred to the body? Then again, someone might ask if the spirit exists in the first place.

The second chapter is a better example for the influence of childhood experiences. It is titled ‘Sixteen Years Later’ with reference to the eighth son, then named Devavrata and later, Bheeshma. The chapter gives evidence of all that Bheeshma learns during his childhood and adolescence. His attitude of striving for more than his potential gives testimony to the decisions he takes later in life, when he turns father to his dead brothers’ sons and then grandfather to their sons. His experience of staying away from his father for those many years might have driven him to be the best father figure that the princes could possibly have. This is reflected first when he first chooses the wives for his brother, Vichitraveerya and then through the ways in which he brings up the princes. He provides them an education far superior to his own when he was as old as them.

The next reference to previous birth comes about in the sixth chapter when one of the princesses chosen for Vichitraveerya, Amba claims that she had already chosen her husband. According to custom, she is no longer eligible to marry Vichitraveerya and hence leaves the palace to return to her chosen one. When he rejects her, she is in a fit of rage and does a penance to be able to take revenge on Bheeshma for reducing her to such a state. In time her perseverance gives way to her being granted a boon that she would be reborn as a man who shall destroy Bheeshma. She is also granted the benefit of remembering the rage that she felt in the present birth when she was to be born again. The whole process of being born in this instance is driven by her rage against Bheeshma. Transcending above a childhood to adolescent trait, she is born all over again to fulfil that impulse. The focus here is then on how the act of transference of an instinct is transformed into the fantastic as an element of an epic.

The twelfth chapter that narrates ‘The Birth of the Pandavas and Duryodhana’ represents the source of their personality traits. It is not based on their childhood experiences; it is based on the God that they are born of, hence raising the question of genetically retaining traits and impulses. That then contradicts that belief that every individual is unique. This is said to have occurred in a time obviously much before Freud gave his theories to the world. So, suggesting that the Pandavas possess certain skills and traits because they were born of a certain person, or entity, in this case, questions the theory itself? Can this epic be dissected then, on the basis of psychoanalysis, when the first step of the process is itself questionable? If the brothers had honed their skills based on a certain drive and if they had chosen a certain role based on a particular instinct they couldn’t explain, this theory would have worked quite well.

The fifteenth chapter marks the conflict and is titled ‘Jealousy: Its First Sprouts’. This is the best example of a childhood experience being the root of Duryodhana’s drive in life. His feeling towards his cousins, the Pandavas, had only been the result of a childish rage of jealousy. If he had let it pass, the story would have taken another course altogether. The fact that his uncle, Sakuni influences him at an early age with the most negative of thoughts leaves this experience embedded in his mind. What was then a childish behaviour results in a violent action on his part when he attempts to kill Bheema. The entire course of Duryodhana’s life is then steered by this one desire that could have dissolved had it not been solidified with his uncle’s words.

The last episode of such a Freudian occurrence is in the nineteenth chapter titled ‘Radheya’ which takes us back to the tenth chapter when he is first born of Kunti and the Sun God. He is given away by Kunti, who was then a young girl and found and brought up by a childless couple. At the age of sixteen, Radheya is troubled by his unusual desire to learn archery which was what he was born to be worthy of. These repressed instincts come back to him in the form on dreams and desires that puzzle him. When he addresses his mother, she tells him the truth about how he was found and that he was, in fact, the son of someone divine. The search for his true identity then leads him away from his adopted parents towards his real home.

Despite the few episodes that actually refer to childhood desires transforming into adult personalities, the question here still remains the same. Where are our desires rooted? In the world we live in, it is all apparently in our mind, but based on my reading of Mahabharata, there are worlds still unexplored and that might not even be capable of being explored out there that leave us thinking. I believe that spirits exist, in the sense that the energy that we leave behind. Maybe that connects us to the next life, if there hopefully exists one and that is another way that our desires and instincts are carried forward. I don’t know if Freud ever read this epic, and if he did, I wonder if he would have had a convincing answer to the same.

 

Bibliography

Mitchell, Stephen A., and Margaret J. Black. Freud and Beyond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought. New York: Basic Books, 1995. eBook.

Psychoanalytic Criticism - https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/722/04/

Subramaniam, Kamala. Mahabharata. 16th. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 2011. 3- 142. Print.

Class Notes on The Sex Which is Not One - 1324147

The essay, “The Sex Which is Not One” explores female sexuality in a light, different from the contemporary views of the author, Luce Irigaray’s time. The summary given by a fellow classmate brought about a discussion of some key concepts: western sexual imaginary – penis envy – autoeroticism.

The essay published in 1977 and later translated to English is believed to be a refutation to Freud and Lacan’s conclusion of women’s sex as the lack of the male organ, phallus. Irigaray defies the Freudian and Lacanian reading when she analyzes the construction of the woman: a deficient derivative of man.  She disagrees with the idea of women’s sexuality as that which is dependent on the phallus or in relation to the phallus. Throughout the history, penis invariably became the presence which defined the standard for masculinity. Women, on the other hand lack a clear and visual form of a sex organ. As they have always been constructed through the “male language”, this led them to be considered as the substandard and inferior.

The genitalia we never see, the “down-there” we never talk about, the masturbation we discourage, the sexual pleasure we never explore. As a society we have made the female sex invisible, and in its place propped up a cardboard cut out of a sexuality that is only for the comfortable enjoyment of man and his dominant phallic economy (Feminist Frenzy).

Also, male sexuality is seen as “the "strongest" being the one who has the best "hard-on," the longest, the biggest, the stiffest penis,” with reference to the western sexual imaginary. And when, man penetrates a woman with an intention to understand the secret of his origin, women in this imaginary, only become a prop in man’s fantasies.

According to Irigaray, women’s sexuality can be understood only through her body and this body cannot be reduced to one sex organ. The society has symbolically reduced male pleasure to the phallus, but women have multiple/diversified organs through which they can derive pleasure. Here, female genitals are prominently discussed.

Autoeroticism: She speaks of autoeroticism as internal to women. The “labial” lips of the vagina, that are always in contact with each other give her incessant pleasure while a man needs external tools to arouse himself. Further, she says women’s pleasure centres are plural. The foundation for the essay lies in this assumption.

Irigaray tries to prove that women have neither one nor two, but many pleasure centres which makes a woman’s sex not one. Therefore, sex which is not one is created through negation of sexual pleasure from singular or plural pleasure centres to none.

Supritha Balu

1324151

Contemporary Critical Theory- MEL 232

Dr. Pinto

15 February 2014

Reading Barthes with a Cup of kaapi

This is the time for a secret confession….I have never been able to understand Barthes.  His texts are way too lengthy and taxing on my fragile mind, and I simply could not for the life of me postulate as to why any scholar would want to dissect myths.  After all myths are not to be messed with, right?  They MAY be only half-truths, but they are there for a reason.  For instance, I would never dare question my grandparents over a retelling of the Ramayana; the epic is filled with myths and mythological characters in order to inculcate certain CULTURAL values (my personal opinion).  And here my friends, is the wardrobe to the magical land of Narnia….

Myth does not necessarily need to refer to made-up stories; for Barthes, myth is a semiological construction by members of a certain culture who signify and grant meaning to the world around them (Myth Today).  What is more, the originators of these myths necessarily believe them to be true (Encyclopedia Mythica).  In simpler terminology, Barthes considers all discourses to be myths.  Perplexed?  If we were to look at the very etymology of the word ‘myth’, it stems from the Greek mythos which initially meant speech or discourse, but later came to be associated with fable and legend (Encyclopedia Mythica).  If I were to reach into my inner-foodie and to all my culinary-inspired friends out there; even in terms of what is today known as food communication, the symbols (i.e. the combination of signifier and signified) are none other than pure simple myths.  In order to prove my (rather Barthes’ point), let’s take an easy example:

 h+o+t+d+o+g= signifier

a cooked sausage, grilled or steamed and served in a sliced bun as a sandwich= signified (Wikipedia)

According to Saussure, the link between the signifier and the signified is associative; we label and attribute meanings to objects, concepts, ideas, events, and experiences.  Hence, we come a full-circle back to Barthes by concluding that all things are myths.  Having established this, let us not go into a sense of ennui; instead, we shall apply Barthes’ theorem to a universally well-loved and admired entity: COFFEE!  

For as long as I remember, coffee for us Tamil Iyers were never cappuccinos or frappes, but degree filter coffee.  The beverage became such an iconic symbol of Tam-Brahms, that it became customary to step into one’s home and smell the aroma of the decoction wafting from the kitchen.  Guests are usually required to compliment the sight, smell and taste of the kaapi served in the dabara and tumbler.  If the celebrated drink does not live upto its mark though, it is spread throughout the Iyer gossip-tree that a particular household cannot provide its visitors with well-made filter coffees.  How did this cultural narrative of the Tam-Brahm and the Kumbakonnam degree filter coffee come about?  Well, perhaps Barthes can help us in analyzing this hundred years-old tradition…..or as we now call it, myth.

Moving away from the signifier and the signified, the filter kaapi has become a second order signifier, standing for cultural product.  The essence of Tam-Brahm values that the beverage symbolises is virtuously associative.  Much like in the visual narrative of the African child soldier saluting the French flag, we are required to read between the lines to arrive at the required associative meaning.  Denotatively, the filter kaapi is a milky beverage made from roasted coffee beans and extracted in a metallic container under the force of gravitation (Anzzcafe).  Connotatively though, the mixture of coffee beans, chicory, milk and jaggery; not only stands for the Godly act of hospitality, but is also a carrier of the South-Indian pride of being able to produce gold from straw.  I shall explain the latter statement; India was known to the British as the land of tea.  Coffee came to the South (especially Karnataka and Tamil Nadu) in the seventeenth century, through an Indian Muslim Saint Baba Budan.  He smuggled seven coffee beans from Yemen while on a pilgrimage to Mecca (ironical; Wall Street Journal Blog).  Coffee plantations thrived in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu; the local royals found it easy to placate the British sensibilities by serving them a rich hot brew of filter coffee.  Thus several hill-stations in the South became holiday spots for the British; they could enjoy the stiff air coming from the hills while keeping watch over the coffee and tea plantations.  The British officers were so enamored by this dark drink that they set up several coffee stalls near prominent railway lines.  The filter kaapi by the late nineteenth century, had crept into Tamil homes where coffee lovers (mostly Tamil women, who were interestingly asked to stay away from this ‘dark poison’) roasted peaberry beans and devised their own gadget (the filter/percolator) for roasting, grinding, brewing and serving.  Thus the degree kaapi turned into a community art-form (Crucible Chronicle).  Dissecting the coffee linguistically, chicory beans were and are still used to make the filtered brew.  The South Indian pronunciation of chicory was chigory which became digory and finally, degree (Kumbakonam Degree Coffee, The Hindu Online).  Hence, the myth of the filter coffee is a science of forms (Myth Today).  We are required to weave everything that comprises an icon/object together, in order to arrive at the desired meaning and establish the myth.  

Myth and their meanings are historically produced and conditioned according to Barthes; they are never fixed, but are constantly growing or changing.  He goes on further to say that myths de-historicise and de-politicise meanings that are always historical and political.  In terms of the filter coffee, the myth of the kaapi stands alone.  It has been reproduced so many times that it has become Americanised or Starbucked as we now call it.  When I decide to purchase a degree filter coffee today, it may not be its history or cultural implications that navigate my decision-making process, but the fact that I want to have it and my economic status which allows me to consume the product.

Myth for Barthes does not conceal anything, but distorts reality.  Myth is an ideological tool which presents realities in a manner that complies with the ruling ideology.  Take the myth of coffee itself; most of us drink it today and are psychologically made to do so because of the crop of coffee-places within an area itself.  These cafes were first opened to serve coffees-on-the-go and to provide a relaxed atmosphere for enjoying beverages.  People in the nineties were busy and they required peace-of-mind.  Hence the start of such coffee chains was in accordance with the ruling ideology.  The myths of various food items keep changing from one generation to another, in order to earn its current standing in favour of the ruling party’s ideas.  Hence for Barthes, myths can also be understood only in one manner at a given point of time; it is not open to interpretations.  This for him is the power of the myth.  The non-arbitrary relation between the signifier and the signified makes the associative link factual.  In other words, a myth is not what it describes about itself, but the assumption on which it is founded.  The ingredients of the kaapi are not what make the myth; the cultural value under which the kaapi itself was founded and devised is what gives flesh to it.  Barthes terms myth as a ‘collective illusion’; a story that a certain society or culture tells itself, to justify its own world the way it is.  Hence, all our foods have a back-story.  They may not physically voice-out where they come from and there is no empirical way of determining their status in society (except for economics which is also a human tool), but we attribute their characteristics to their location, history and culture, and link them to our understanding of food items as they are today.  

Probing into this point, let’s take the case of a common misconstruction, that of the Indian food.  What exactly is Indian food?  Does it comprise of dishes from the North, South, East, West, or the North-East?  Do the sweet or the savoury ingredients define them?  The concept of Indian food itself is a human ideological construct, a myth.  It is a collective illusion that gives us Indians a sense of national unity and identity.  If I were to go abroad, I would not term my daily cuisine as South-Indian, but Indian food.  Several South-Asian culinary markets fall under this very myth.  Asian cuisine is not noodles and Manchurian; it can be the Korean Soondubu Jiggae, or the Vietnamese Banh canh.  Hence, the language of food is not as simple as it may seem….much like Barthes’ myth.

I hope I have been able to understand Barthes through my cultural product, the degree filter coffee.  Hopefully, I shall be able to make a lot more sense of him and Myth Today while sipping on a cuppa today.  

Bibliography

Barthes, Roland.  “Myth Today”.  Print.  14 February 2014.

“South Indian Filter Coffee- All Stages from Bean to Mug..!”.  Anzzcafe.  Web.  

15 February 2014.

“Roland Barthes- Myth Today”.  the cultural studies reader. Blogspot.com.  7 April 2012.  Web.   15 February 2014.

Eckhardt, Robyn.  “India’s Streetside Coffee Culture”.  SCENE ASIA Food & Drink.  

The Wall Street Journal Life & Style.  27 November 2013.  Web.  15 February 2014.

Gerald, Olympia.  “Kumbakonam Degree Coffee”.  THE HINDU.  The Hindu 2014.  

27 October 2012.  Web.  15 February 2014.

Datta, Aparna.  “From Mocha to Mysore: A Coffee Journey”.  Crucible Chronicle.  

Crucible 2007-2008.  2004.  Web.  15 February 2014.

Doyle, Bernard.  “Mythology”.  Encyclopedia Mythica. MMIX Encyclopedia Mythica.  

2 August 2004.  Web.  15 February 2014