History of Psychology in India

 Psychology as an academic discipline made a new beginning in India in the first decade of this century. Calcutta University established the first Department of Psychology in 1915 under the leadership of Dr N.N. Sengupta, who had worked under Professor Hugo Munsterberg, a former student of Wundt. Due to the fact that Calcutta University became the first centre of psychological research and teaching in India, it was able to play a key role in the development of psychology in the country (Kundu & Chakrabati, 1979).

Before independence, psychological research in India was greatly influenced by the British universities. Most of the Indian psychologists during this time were trained abroad and they followed the western theories of psychology. This psychology, transplanted to India as part of the total imperialist domination by the West, came as a ready-made intellectual package in the first decade of the century (Nandy, 1974). In doing so it almost entirely challenged and to a greater extend replaced the intellectual traditions and indigenous systems that had existed for thousands of years – systems that contained elaborate theories about human nature, actions, personality and their relationships with the world. For instance, mentally ill patients in India were historically treated using various approaches such as herbal or ayurvedic medicines, yoga and music (Prasadarao & Sudhir, 2001). But with the advent of scientific (Western) psychology all these traditional and effective treatments were replaced with ‘scientific’ techniques.

Following the independence of India in 1947, there were many efforts from the part of government to integrate social science into science and technology research as part of the nation building programme. India’s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was a great promoter of psychology, encouraging students to go abroad to obtain their degrees under eminent psychology professors. He also invited and encouraged psychologists to research on certain issues in India.

Dr Girindra Shekar Bose, who succeeded Dr N.N. Sengupta at Calcutta University, was a medical practitioner who became a pioneer in psychoanalysis in India. In 1922 he established the Indian Psychoanalytical Society, affiliated to the international Psychoanalytic Association. The Indian Psychological Association appeared in 1925.The Indian Association of Clinical Psychologists (IACP) was started in 1968 (Prabhu, 1983). The Indian Psychological Association appeared in 1925.The Indian Association of Clinical Psychologists (IACP) was started in 1968 (Prabhu, 1983).

In the early days psychology was mainly applied in clinical settings, and courses focused on training clinical psychologists. With the growth in the discipline, counseling psychology became popular and was extensively used in different areas of counseling. The growth in the economy and industrial sector resulted in the use of psychology in industrial and organizational settings. Psychology has also been applied in military settings since independence. After independence the defense ministry emphasized the need to include psychologists on research and selection boards of armed forces to provide help and assistance and then they started doing it. Also in the fields of sports and health, psychology is widely used today and disciplines have emerged in all these areas.

Until the mid-1980s the public viewed psychology primarily as a remedy for abnormal behavior. But the popularity of psychology has increased a lot with its application in different and diverse areas such as education, organizations, defense, health, sports etc. According to the Association of Indian Universities, 51 of the 101 recognised universities were offering psychology by the end of 1975. By 1995 the number of universities had risen to 219 and those offering psychology at various levels had risen to 70 (Prasadarao & Sudhir, 2001). The period after the mid-1990s has seen an even sharper growth in the popularity of psychology. Psychology has been introduced in the curriculum of senior secondary schools.

Indian psychology has come a long way in the hundred years of its existence. Research in psychology is conducted in many universities and research establishments. It is not known how many colleges and universities offer psychology courses and how many psychologists are professionally active.  The National Institute of Mental Health and Neurociences is an institution of international repute for research in clinical psychology and training clinical psychologists. The Central Institute of Psychiatry, B.M. Institute are among other highly reputed institutions carrying out research in clinical psychology.

Indian psychology in the twenty-first century shows that the initial emphasis on the replication of Western studies has given way to socially relevant research, and that there is a shift from experimental work (micro) toward understanding the psychological, social and cultural contexts (macro) using qualitative approaches. Academicians and research have started looking at problems in a more holistic manner and an eclectic approach is preferred today.

History of Higher education | By Roopashree

Hi Sir,

Please find the attached document on "History of Higher Education
(Technical Education) in India and Karnataka"

By
Name : Roopashree H R
Reg no : 1347102


Regards,
Roopashree

Higher education in chemistry

REKHA KUMARI (1345102)

History of Management Education in India

If we look at the Management education or business Education in India, it has been proliferating at a very high rate. India trains more than 100,000 degrees annually in Management education. The liberalisation of Indian education during 1990’s has been responsible for this growth.

In India, we can trace Business education way back to the 19^th century. British government administration needs were fulfilled by this education to some extent. The graduates joined as clerks in the British administration.

In Chennai in 1903 was set up the India’s first business school – commercial school of pachiappa charities. In 1913, Sydenham College in Mumbai was the first college level business school to be founded. This was followed by Shri Ram College of commerce in Delhi in 1920.

If we look at the Indian Business schools, most of them have followed the US type of systems in terms of pedagogy, curriculum and interfacing with industry.

In the initial years of business education, it was not popular. All bright students were expected to join science stream and take engineering at the IIT’s or other technical institutes. Afterwards they joined companies as technical supervisors and then moved up to take up managerial positions.

During 1980’s business education got increased importance. One of the reasons was the difficulty in getting admission into science stream as the demand was more than available seats in science stream. Students started joining management stream.  Companies also increased hiring commerce graduates at junior executive level and developing them for executive posts.

Commerce stream was being looked as an alternative for becoming an executive in the corporate world. Commerce education aim was to develop knowledge of business transactions from economics and accounting angle.  Management education aims to develop knowledge about overall business and also its different functions. It was focused on graduate levels and help in developing future leaders.

In 1961 two IIM’s were launched.  IIM Calcutta with collaboration from Sloan school of Management at MIT  and  IIM Ahmadabad started with Harvard business school help.

With respect to quality, only the top B-schools are giving quality education.  The rest of the schools require to increase their quality level to ensure the students become more ready for corporate world.

 During 1990’s growth in the number of business schools occurred and also management education received lot of status.  Many of the big private companies started recruiting business graduates for the management jobs.

Some of  the skills which business  graduates  were expected to have  were  good accounting skills and also operational management skills, marketing skills,  good oral and written communications , critical  thinking and as well team working skills.   And also knowledge of information technology is required for leveraging its power in the business arena.

The teaching pedagogy has been undergoing constant changes in the Management education to suit the above requirements.

In addition to MBA programmes   many universities started BBA programmes and these have become popular.  BBA programmes are being preferred to traditional commerce programmes.

As management institutes started growing, in 1973 two more IIM’s were started one in Bangalore and another in Lucknow. During late 1990’s two more were added to the list of  IIM’s  one at Calicut and another at  Indore. Opening of more IIM’s helped in developing management education across  the country.

ICFAI  set up in 1994  ICFAI  Business school and it has branches  in all the major cities of India. It teaches MBA in different programs and it uses industry people for teaching.

IGNOU also helped in the spread of  business education in India by making it affordable to the common masses. It’s open learning programmes has become successful. It also has launched Gyan Darshan a TV channel to deliver the business course content  across India.

Some of the metrics used by business schools for measuring quality are: students quality, placement,  faculty development and teaching pedagogy.

Getting admission to one of the premium business schools is considered to help students in their growth. Common admission tests are conducted by IIM’s for admission into their schools. Other business institutes also use the CAT score for their admission process.

The Business schools get students from a variety of background like engineering, commerce, medicine, science and liberal arts. This helps in the diversity and a good classroom experience. Business schools are continuously upgrading the skills they are imparting to make it more relevant to the industry requirements.

The quality of management education is also influenced by the pedagogy used by the business schools. An efficient pedagogy can facilitate an effective learning in the class. In most business schools it is mandatory to do 2 months summer internship in a business organisation which helps in honing the skills of the students. The challenge in business education is to ensure quality in all the  business  schools  particularly tier 2 and tier 3 not just tier 1.

 References

1)   Vipin Gupta and Kamala Gollakata, “Quality in Business education: A study of the Indian context . “  Paper prepared for and presented at the Business Education and Emerging Market Economies: Trends and Prospects Conference, Technology Square, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, November 7, 2003

2)      Arun Kumar Kaushik   and Jagbir Singh Dalal “Management Education in India Research Paper”  2011.  Uttarakhand Technical University

B.Padmanabh
1340002

HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA Mary Varughese

Psychology was first introduced as a subject in the Philosophy department of the Calcutta University in 1916. It had an alien quality to it, as Indians were not used to the empirical approach that was prevalent at that time. The then Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy, Brojendra Nath drafted the first syllabus. He was also the first to establish the first experimental lab in 1905 that later became the seat of the department when it was established. Studies in this lab revolved around depth perception, psychophysics and attention. Recognizing the scientific nature of psychology, the Indian Science Congress included it as a separate section in 1923. The Indian Psychological Association was founded in 1924. Soon after this, Girindra Shekhar Bose, who was in close contact with Freud, founded the Indian Psychoanalytic Society in 1922.

Bose, after receiving his PhD from Calcutta, established the Lumbini Park Mental Hospital in Calcutta in 1940 that brought out the journal ‘Samiksha’. Many Indian psychologists had contacts with the famous contributors to psychology during those days. Jung, Meyers, and Spearman were present during the Silver Jubilee Session of the Indian Science Congress. M.V. Gopalswami, head of the department of psychology at Mysore was trained in the London University with Spearman in the mental testing tradition. He helped develop Indian adaptations of Western intelligence tests. He was the first to establish the first animal lab in India.

The department at Patna began in 1946 along with the Institute of Psychological Research and Services headed by H. P. Maiti. Maiti was trained with Bose and was psychoanalytic in his approach and very soon the department at Patna became a major center for counselling services and research.

The empirical nature of psychology during those years meant that psychologists in India had to compartmentalize their aesthetic satisfaction of Hindu mythologies without seeking to bring the two together (Kakar, 1982). Psychologists were also aware that this singularity of the positivist approach was unable to fully explain the psycho-social nature of the Indian society or the Indian mind. Hence, there was no overlap between what the reality of Indian society was and the subjects being studied in the departments of Psychology during the British period. This also meant that they were unable to make any major societal changes or engage in research that would bring about social awareness.

 This bifurcation of the actual from the academic did not change even after Independence. In fact, it only become more pronounced. In most universities, there was a divide now between the Philosophy department and the Psychology department. Most of the philosophy professors became psychology professors and were very excited to be finally considered ‘scientific’. Hence, they continued to study areas like memory, psychophysics, perception, learning, pattern recognition and the like. They did not utilize their understanding of Indian Philosophy to help them better understand the Indian mind and behaviour.

Psychologists also did not focus on theory building and neither did they stick to any particular theory in their writings. Decisions were based more on what projects generated more funds. They also distanced themselves from issues of national interest. Hence, Psychology was distant in nature and it lacked a vision to take it forward.

But, in 1950, after the partition of India, the Ministry of Education sought the services of Gardner Murphy to help Indian scholars investigate the causes of communal violence. This endeavor resulted in a book called ‘In the Minds of Men’. This was a not just towards academic writing, but also towards understanding the mind set of Indian people.

Post Independence, there was also a shift of the growth of Psychology outside the university campuses. Kamla Chowdhury conducted a large-scale survey on motivational levels in textile industry workers. NIMHANS in 1955 and the Hospital for Mental Diseases in Ranchi introduced advanced training programmes for the benefit of personnel selection tests. 

In the 1950s-1960s the field of psychology saw huge progress as the UGC encouraged various universities to begin courses in psychology by funding them. As a result the number colleges offering psychology increased to a 32. The interests of the person heading the department at any given time governed the specialties that the departments focused on. Hence, departments were not able to focus on one field of specialization over a sustainable period of time.

The UGC continued in its efforts to promote excellence in education. In the late sixties it began a scheme of Centers for Advanced Studies and Centers for Special Assistance. Under these schemes the psychology departments at Utkal and Allahabad were given the status of Centers of Advanced Studies in Psychology. The aim was to improve the quality to be on par with the rest of the world.  The UGC expected these departments to take the lead in areas of advanced research.

The exchange programmes engaged by the fellowships of Commonwealth, Fulbright and Ford Foundation, encouraged many Indian scholars to be trained in the west (Britain, Canada, and the United States) and sharpen their skills. On their return these scholars were able to impart skill and engage in projects that had social impacts. Another development during this time was that psychology was introduced to various professional colleges like engineering, agriculture, management and medical sciences. However, the subject was taught by junior staff, research assistants, and demonstrators and received a low priority. This has not changed much even to this day.

In the seventies, many researchers became frustrated with being unable to conduct research within the university departments and hence research endeavors were taken outside the university departments. The universities were also not being able to control the quality of students entering the departments. The universities were also being effected by the politics of the nation and there was unrest on their campuses. Some of the institutes where A.N.S. Institute of Social Studies (Patna), Center for the Study of Developing Societies (New Delhi), and the National Institute of Community Development (Hyderabad).

The area of psychological testing continued to increase. Many western tests were being adapted to the Indian population. Out of the 503 tests, 218 were personality tests. However, these tests did not establish validation and seemed to have a language barrier. Hence, these tests were suited only for the urban population. The quality of these tests were thus in question.

The Second Handbook of tests by Pestonjee showed considerable improvement. This handbook showed improvements in the areas of establishing validity and including Indian adaptations of western tests. These tests were then used to conduct research on the prevalence of mental health problems by Sethi in Lucknow (1972), Dube in Agra (1970), Rao in rural Bengal (1972), Verghese in Vellore (1973). However, these epidemiological studies lacked depth in the study of the problem. Areas of drug abuse, yoga and health, psycholsocial aspects of family planning and mental retardation was slowing gaining momentum in the seventies. 

Towards the late seventies and eighties there was a noticeable change in the focus of research. Scholars began to research on social problems, Indian concepts and theories. Some of the areas of interest were teacher-pupil model in clinical counseling (Neki, 1973), leadership style – nurturant task-master (Sinha, 1980), the role of traditional healers in maintaining mental health in traditional societies (Kakar, 1982, and 1991), concept of stress based on ancient scripture (Rao, 1983), concepts of stress based on ancient scriptures (Bhavasari, Goswami, and Evans, 1986), and a measure to study the concept of detachment and its mental health consequences (1992). However, the majority of the research topics tend to be replicative and imitative. 

 The present trend in research and higher education in India is towards indigenization. An example in this trend is the book edited by Misra and Mohanty (2002) titled ‘Perspectives on Indigenous Psychology. 

History of Management Education in India

If we look at the Management education or business Education in India, it has been proliferating at a very high rate. India trains more than 100,000 degrees annually in Management education. The liberalisation of Indian education during 1990’s has been responsible for this growth.

In India, we can trace Business education way back to the 19^th century. British government administration needs were fulfilled by this education to some extent. The graduates joined as clerks in the British administration.

In Chennai in 1903 was set up the India’s first business school – commercial school of pachiappa charities. In 1913, Sydenham College in Mumbai was the first college level business school to be founded. This was followed by Shri Ram College of commerce in Delhi in 1920.

If we look at the Indian Business schools, most of them have followed the US type of systems in terms of pedagogy, curriculum and interfacing with industry.

In the initial years of business education, it was not popular. All bright students were expected to join science stream and take engineering at the IIT’s or other technical institutes. Afterwards they joined companies as technical supervisors and then moved up to take up managerial positions.

During 1980’s business education got increased importance. One of the reasons was the difficulty in getting admission into science stream as the demand was more than available seats in science stream. Students started joining management stream.  Companies also increased hiring commerce graduates at junior executive level and developing them for executive posts.

Commerce stream was being looked as an alternative for becoming an executive in the corporate world. Commerce education aim was to develop knowledge of business transactions from economics and accounting angle.  Management education aims to develop knowledge about overall business and also its different functions. It was focused on graduate levels and help in developing future leaders.

In 1961 two IIM’s were launched.  IIM Calcutta with collaboration from Sloan school of Management at MIT  and  IIM Ahmadabad started with Harvard business school help.

With respect to quality, only the top B-schools are giving quality education.  The rest of the schools require to increase their quality level to ensure the students become more ready for corporate world. 

During 1990’s growth in the number of business schools occurred and also management education received lot of status.  Many of the big private companies started recruiting business graduates for the management jobs.

Some of  the skills which business  graduates  were expected to have  were  good accounting skills and also operational management skills, marketing skills,  good oral and written communications , critical  thinking and as well team working skills.   And also knowledge of information technology is required for leveraging its power in the business arena.

The teaching pedagogy has been undergoing constant changes in the Management education to suit the above requirements.

In addition to MBA programmes   many universities started BBA programmes and these have become popular.  BBA programmes are being preferred to traditional commerce programmes.

As management institutes started growing, in 1973 two more IIM’s were started one in Bangalore and another in Lucknow. During late 1990’s two more were added to the list of  IIM’s  one at Calicut and another at  Indore. Opening of more IIM’s helped in developing management education across  the country.

ICFAI  set up in 1994  ICFAI  Business school and it has branches  in all the major cities of India. It teaches MBA in different programs and it uses industry people for teaching.

IGNOU also helped in the spread of  business education in India by making it affordable to the common masses. It’s open learning programmes has become successful. It also has launched Gyan Darshan a TV channel to deliver the business course content  across India.

Some of the metrics used by business schools for measuring quality are: students quality, placement,  faculty development and teaching pedagogy.

Getting admission to one of the premium business schools is considered to help students in their growth. Common admission tests are conducted by IIM’s for admission into their schools. Other business institutes also use the CAT score for their admission process.

The Business schools get students from a variety of background like engineering, commerce, medicine, science and liberal arts. This helps in the diversity and a good classroom experience. Business schools are continuously upgrading the skills they are imparting to make it more relevant to the industry requirements.

The quality of management education is also influenced by the pedagogy used by the business schools. An efficient pedagogy can facilitate an effective learning in the class. In most business schools it is mandatory to do 2 months summer internship in a business organisation which helps in honing the skills of the students. The challenge in business education is to ensure quality in all the  business  schools  particularly tier 2 and tier 3 not just tier 1.

  

References

1)   Vipin Gupta and Kamala Gollakata, “Quality in Business education: A study of the Indian context . “  Paper prepared for and presented at the Business Education and Emerging Market Economies: Trends and Prospects Conference, Technology Square, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, November 7, 2003

2)      Arun Kumar Kaushik   and Jagbir Singh Dalal “Management Education in India Research Paper”  2011.  Uttarakhand Technical University

B.Padmanabh

Reg no 1340002

History of Psychology Sai Kirthi Kamath PhD in Psychology

History of Development of Psychology in India

It was during the British period that education was given emphasis for the Indians. Psychology was a stream that was embedded in Philosophy. Since there was a lot of western influence on the psychologists in India, they became more western in their training and orientation.

In India, however the roots of psychology can be traced back to the vast philosophical and religious literature: namely, Vedic and Epic literature.  In particular, Vedas, Yoga Sutras, Bhagavad Gita are the Indian sources for analysing various aspects of man's behaviour and mind.  It was around that this time that Sri Aurobindo made significant contribution to psychology from the Indian tradition. Psychology was an important part of his voluminous writings. With all these influences and the basic emphasis on education: Psychology as a subject gained a lot of momentum.

Psychology was first introduced in Calcutta University in the Department of Philosophy in the year1916.The first generation of psychologists after independence were people from the background of Philosophy. Separate Psychology Departments were largely started between1940-1960. Brojendra Nath Seal drafted the first syllabus for Experimental Psychology a laboratory for demonstration purpose in 1905.Eleven years later this was upgraded as the first Psychology Department known as the 'The Department of Experimental Psychology'. Mr. Narendra Nath Sengupta was a student of William Wundt and was the first person who chaired the department. Around the same time attempts were made by psychologists to make experimental psychology and psychometric distinctive features of psychology curricula and this process continues even today. Due to this in India Psychology acquired the status of being a science along with biological sciences, faster than the status it has got in the west.

The Indian Psychological association was founded in 1924 and the Indian Journal of Psychology appeared a year later.  During this time another significant person was Girendra Shekar Bose, who was inclined towards Psycho analysis and started the Indian Psychoanalytic Society. He was the first person to be awarded a PhD from an Indian University (i.e. Calcutta).He established the Lumbi Park Mental Health Hospital in Calcutta in 1940 and in 1947 brought out the journal 'Samiksha'.The department also started an applied psychology wing in 1938 when Jung, Meyers and Spearman were invited to the Silver Jubilee session on the Indian Science Congress.

Other departments of Psychology were soon established in Mysore and Patna. In 1924 down south, Mr. M.V.Goplswamy was heading the department in Mysore and he was trained in Psychological assessments. In 1946 Psychology was started in university of Patna under two separate wings Experimental Psychology and Department of Applied Psychology.

In 1956, The University Grants Commission was set-up , its responsibility was to provide funds to various universities to start Psychology Departments. Due to this there were 32 departments in Psychology by 1960(this has however increased now).Certain centres also provided advanced studies in Psychology. Soon another changing trend was that psychology was being offered in colleges offering Engineering, Agriculture and in management colleges. A lot of other centres such as NCERT,NIPCCD etc. started applied research in different fields of Psychology.

Several streams are present in Psychology historically we can see how some of them have developed. According to UGC report in 1968, 19 universities offered a course in Clinical Psychology at the Masters level(now a lot more are present). At that time training for Clinical Psychologists was provided in three major centres such as All India Institute of Mental Health in Bangalore (now NIMHANS), Hospital for Mental Disease, Ranchi and Mental Hospital in Calcutta. Around this time Clinical Psychologists also organised an all India Association of their own, and its first convention was held in October 1969, at the All India Institute of Mental Health Bangalore. With regard to Education Psychology, the first college of education was had been established in Madras more than 100years ago. The first time Education Psychology was introduced at the MA level as a paper was in 1961 in the University of Calcutta.

Currently there are about 15000 psychologists in India. Several departments in India are offering it as a subject.The subject and its significance has changed remarkably over the years. A few examples of universities offering Post Graduation and clinical Training have been explained below.

History of Bangalore University for Post-Graduation in Psychology

In Bangalore University in 1974 two specializations emerged one in Clinical Psychology and the other in Industrial Psychology. In 1994 the department had a third specialization called Child Guidance Clinic and it shifted to the Faculty of Science. In the year 2000 an M.Sc. in Psychological Counselling and two specializations in Educational Counselling and Human Resource Management was started. In 2003 the University started offering M.Sc. in Psychology in affiliated colleges apart from the university. In 2006 the department of Psychology at Bangalore University, moved to an independent well designed building.

History of Clinical Psychology in NIMHANS, the department was started in the year 1954 as the department of Psychology and Human Relations. It is one of the oldest and largest departments in NIMHANS. It is involved in clinical services, human resource Development and research activities. The first training programme was started in 1955 as Diploma in Medical Psychology and the first PhD was started in 1967.Most students were/are trained in Behaviour Therapy ,Rehabilitation, De-addiction ,Adult and Child Psychiatry.

As a subject whatever has been the various influences in Psychology weather religion or Philosophy, it now stands its ground. It has made its way into most universities and is also offered as a subject in high school.

References:

Dalai, A. K. (2011). A journey back to the roots: Psychology in India.Foundations of Indian Psychology Volume 1: Theories and Concepts, 27.

Jain, A. K. (2005). Psychology in India. The Psychologist, 18(4), 206-208.

Misra, G., & Paranjpe, E. A. C. (2012). Psychology in modern India. InEncyclopedia of the history of psychological theories (pp. 881-892). Springer US.

Singh, A. K. (1991). The comprehensive history of psychology. Motilal Banarsidass Publ..

http://www.nimhans.kar.nic.in/mhsp/default.htm

http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/images/Souvenir-Internet1.pdf

NATIONAL SEMINAR ON PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE 2001 October 22, 23, 24 KOLLAM Golden Jubilee Celebrations of Fatima Mata National College, Kollam

www.bangaloreuniversity.ac.in

History of Social Work Education in India

Introduction

Social work  is a professional and academic discipline that seeks to improve the quality and well being of individuals, groups, and communities through research, policy, community organizing, direct practice, crisis intervention,  and teaching for the benefit of those affected by social disadvantages such as poverty, mental and physical illness or disability, and, social injustice  including violations of their civil liberties and human rights Social work profession began to lean heavily on the patterns and institutions developed in the west and specially in the United States. 

professional  education for social work in India began in 1936 when school of social work  was set up in Bombay by the house of Tata, one of the largest private and business enterprises the main inspiration for its establishment came from America, For 11 years between 1936 to 1947, this institute was the only imparting professional  education in social work  In 1946, the second institution was established in Lucknow under auspices of young women Christian association with a substantial grand from its counterpart in USA It was shifted to Delhi and named Delhi school of social work After two years of experimentation, it started a form a two year programmed of social work training in 1949 and was affiliated to as a graduate school to the university of Delhi for the master of arts degree. the institution was eventually merged with the university in 1979 and became one of its departments for a administrative matters under the faculty of social sciences, In 1950another institute was started as a faculty of social work under the university of Baroda somewhat on the general pattern of the American which was accepted earlier at Bombay and Delhi During the next decade 1951-60fourteen more institutions were started  in 1971-80 By the end of 1980thiirty institutions were providing social work education and training at graduate level I t is new reported that the number has gone to fifty or more in the mid -nineties The years between 1970 and 1980 also saw social work educators advocating greater need

for relevance of social work education. Several institutions undertook major review of curricula and development of new courses with more development focus and focus on poverty. However by 1984there was discrepancies and confusion that had seeped into social work that prompted ArmaityDesai to argue strongly that social work needs to move away from too much dependency on provisions and services to organising people to promote change, from institutionalised to non institutionalised

 programmes, from remedial to those that confronts the cause of poverty, from

private concern to public issues, from research with problem focus to one of action oriented research. Social action should not be seen only as a method but as an overriding philosophy behind social work education and practice in India. Social work education in 1986 witnessed the setting up of the curriculum development

centre in TISS. This was followed by another major curriculum review undertaken by theUGC in 1988-1990 where social action; policy and planning and social conflict were stressed. The report of the UGC curriculum development which came out in 1989 for the first time noted the important of caste in social work and the  same got incorporated as a component in social work curriculum under a course titled, “Issues and concerns of social work profession”. As if to amplify

the irony further, M.S.Gore came out with a book titled, “Social Context ofIdeology” which revolved around the ideas of Dr.B.R.Ambedkar.

This movement was furthered by an interesting gathering of social workers around a theme‘Towards People Centred Development’ organised by the TISS that purportedly deliberated on campaign and movements for empowerment of the marginalised. In 1997 the Declaration of Ethics of Professional Social work came out from the TISS published in the Indian Journal of Social work.

By 2003, a National Seminar on Standards for Assessment of Quality in Social Work Education was organised by the Tata Institute of Social Sciences, and  sponsored by the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), on November 11-13, 2003. The Seminar aimed at developing minimum and quality standards in social work education, for the NAAC criteria of assessment and

accreditation. Twenty-four resource persons were identified to chair the different sessions and prepare papers on standards for specific criterion or sub-criterion. They were identified from the University Grants Commission (UGC)/ NAAC experts and officials; former members of the UGC Panel for Social Work Education; Presidents of social work professional associations; Heads of

institutions for social work education, accredited by NAAC with Five Stars; select practitioner in charge of field action projects at institutions for social work education; and those who were also social work educators. By 2005 restructuring of the first school of social work began. The new social work programmes were rolled out in 2006 only within the TISS. Post restructuring of the first school of social work in the country, new distinct fields of practiced has emerged in social work education which includes  Dalit  and Tribal Social Work, Women  Centered Social Work and Disability Social Work (bodhi s.r). While restructuring had happened trends has not picked up social work education across the

country, while efforts towards the same is taking place at a rapid pace. There is the formation of a Government backed Network of Social Work Education led by the Tata Institute of Social Sciences

in 2012, which is constituted by one senior representative from every social work institute in the country towards reforming social work courses, revision of curricular and updating the same in tuned with contemporary and future needs.

 Social work education is mainly organized at the masters level because  the American model which it copied was primarily at the graduate level till the end of the sixties Since then institution for ender graduate social work education in America have multiplied but in India less than a dozen institutions offer the bachelors degree in social work even today. Just as in ,social work education originated outside the established university education system in India

In India out of 200 universities which cover about 5000 colleges,  only fifteen universities have separate department of social work, two universities are deemed to be universities and all other social work institutions are affiliated to universities

Major components of social work education

The programme of education has basically three components : class room courses research project and field work .The courses offered are generally divided in to four groups. The first group consist of courses about Indian history, social structure, history and philosophy of social work and social problems; the second group relates to the study of human  growth and development; and the third group includes methods of working with people such as social case work ,social group work community organization and community development ,social welfare administration and social research; and the group is composed of specialized courses

The need for employment of professional social workers in various posts both in the voluntary sector and government arose with the introduction of several national programs of social welfare and  development through five year plans.

The initial stage of social work education, the Scholl of social work which were launched mainly by the non-government organizations were in close touch with practicing agencies in the field.

In the initial stages ,social work methods were primarily used in the field of social welfare over the years, social started working in diverse field, like rural development ,child development, social development etc.

the major emphasis of social work education is to provide training to students to gain employment in remedial and service oriented and voluntary and social work orientation The ideal focus would be to train students towards aggressive social work that is towards social change or reform.

A trend of setting up units for curriculum development in ministries or in university departments internationally come later. India too has a similar history. Two review committee  one in 1960 and another in 1975,were set up by the university grant commission. Commission is a body set up by government of India in 1953 the main function of the commission are promotion and coordination of university education and the determination and maintenance of standards of teaching ,examination and research in universities.

In keeping with international trends of curriculum activities, the university grand commission invited some university departments to carryout curriculum review reforms for various disciplines. A curriculum development centre for this purpose was set up in September 1986 The major task for this curriculum development centre were, (i) the reviewing the existing curriculum,(ii) formulating new curriculum,(iii) suggesting teaching learning resources, iv suggesting ways and means of preparing these and( v) suggesting teacher development programs.

Conclusion

The need for indigenous elements of social work education in terms of its philosophy ,approaches, principles , theories and study materials cannot be over emphasized because working with people, studying social problems and administering social welfare programs call for indigenous orientation and skills. If social work has to move towards professionalism in society has to become effective, it must have indigenous foundations incorporating dominant cultural philosophies, on the one hand, and projected goals which are being promoted on the other.

References

1.Hans Nagpaul,(2005) Social work in urban India,Rawat Publiations,New Delhi .

2Surendra singh,Srivastava S.P,(2003),Social Work Education inIndia:Challenge and Opportunuties,New Royal Book Co.Lucknow.

3.Jacob K.K,(1994) Social Work Education in India,Himanshu Publications,Delhi.

4.Indian journal of Dalit and Tribal Social Work Vol.1,Issue 3 No 1.

History of Psychology in India

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With thanks,
Dolly(Sr. Josiya FCC)
Alvernia Provincial House Chalakudy
Thrissur (Dt), Kerala, INDIA
PIN-680307
phone-09886122675

Growth, Evolution and Contemporary Perspectives of the Science of Economics

Joshy K. J, PhD Scholar, Reg. No. 1341801, Christ University

Economics is a social science that deals with the economic activities of mankind. In other words, it is a social science of human wants and their satisfaction. It is social as it deals with society and human behaviour. It is a science as it qualifies the important features of any scientific disciplines- it contains a systematic body of knowledge; it has numerous laws, models and theories with universal applicability; these laws can be experimented according to real life situations. The origin of the term economics is from a Greek word 'oikonomia', meaning 'household management'. Thus the science of economics is as old as humanity. However the subject matter and coverage has been evolved tremendously through different schools of economic thought. Great economists and thinkers contributed immensely to the growth of the subject into its present form. A school of thought can be understood as a group of people who share common beliefs or opinions or outlook about a particular discipline or philosophy. This essay is an attempt to describe prominent schools of thought in economics that contributed to the development and evolution of economics discipline over a period of several hundred years. Also this essay tries to familiarize the most significant figures pertaining to different schools of thought along with their contributions.

Classical School

It is true to say that the feudal economy rose from the remains of the slave economy of the Roman empire. There were some forerunners of classical political economy. The name of William Petty is very relevant in this context, who has made an important innovation concerning the explanation of value. On the one hand, he completely abandoned the subjective theory of value and on the other he introduced the concept of natural value. It means the prices would tend to adjust to the natural value through small oscillations, though the mechanism of this convergence was not clarified. Another scholar John Locke was influenced by Petty who attempted to justify private property by making use of the labour theory of value. Locke's basic idea was that individual liberty implied the right to control one's own labour. The 18^th century saw important pre conditions for the industrial revolution in the form of the spread of capitalism in the country side, increase in agricultural productivity, technical innovations etc. Classicals believed that money plays only a neutral role in influencing the variables. Changes in money supply affects only the price level, so that only the nominal variables are changed; that is the real variables remain unchanged.

Classical school is the oldest school of economic thinking. Economists like Adam Smith, David Ricardo, J.S.Mill, J.B.Say, Malthus etc have played important roles in this connection. Classical economics focuses on the tendency of markets to move towards equilibrium position. They believed in the full employment equilibrium. It also focuses on objective theories of value.  Adam Smith who is widely considered as the father of modern economics published his famous book, 'An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of Wealth of Nations' in1776. According to him, it is the division of labour that triggers growth process and capital accumulation that drives it. He was successful in convincing the invisible hand theorem. That is price mechanism is the driving force of the economy. The concept value was explained in the premise of scarcity and cost of production. In connection with this, in the later period, Marxian philosophy focused on the labor theory of value and Karl Marx considered it to be the exploitation of labor by capital. He introduced the term surplus value to explain his labour theory of value. (It is important to note that the Marxian School directly descends from the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels which focused on labour theory of value and the exploitation of labour class by the capitalists. Therefore, this school handles the labor theory of value as a method for measuring the degree to which labor is exploited in a capitalist society, rather than simply a method for calculating price).Classical economists believed in the inherent capacity of an economy and they considered that the best way to achieve allocative efficiency is to leave the economy free without any government intervention. This was the basis of the so called laissez faire capitalism which became the foundation of their theoretical frameworks. J.B.Say put forwarded the famous proposition that 'supply creates its own demand'. Classical economists immensely contributed to the fields of economic growth and international trade. In fact the starting point of international trade theories, the concepts of absolute advantage and comparative advantage were given by Adam Smith and David Ricardo respectively.

It is widely recognised that the Classical period lasted until 1870.

Neoclassical School

The neoclassicals followed the footsteps of Classical economists. The prominent economists of neoclassical school of thought are Alfred Marshall, Lionel Robbins, A.C.Pigou, William Jevons, Leon Walras, Clark, Pareto, Mrs.Joan Robinson etc. All of them have contributed immensely to the growth of economics in their own unique ways. Neoclassical economists evolved scientific methods with assumptions and hypotheses and attempted to derive general rules related to the behavior of consumers and firms. According to them the economics agents are rational, consumers try to maximize utility and producers try to maximize profits. Alfred Marshall defined economics as the science of material welfare. According to him wealth is only a means to achieve the ultimate objective of material welfare. Many economists following this school consider utility concept given by Marshall as his greatest contribution to the subject economics. A.C.Pigou studied the important aspects of wage structure. The importance of scarcity and the problem of choice as pointed out by Robbins paved the way for thinking in new lines. Marginal productivity theory given by Clark, the quantity theory of money by Fisher, Pareto optimality conditions, Walrasian general equilibrium model etc were some milestones of neoclassical school of thought. Mrs.Joan Robinson's contributions in the field of growth models have significant impact on economics of growth in the later periods.

Monetarism

The old monetarists like Irving Fisher, Marshall, Pigou etc have contributed significantly to the development of modern monetary theories. All of them contributed to the age old quantity theory of money which stated that money supply is the sole variable affecting the price level. Any change in the money supply has a direct and proportionate relationship with price level. Fisher gave the famous equation of exchange which says, MV=PT. The same idea had been conveyed by the Cambridge economists Pigou and Marshall through the equation Md=kPY.

The most important figure among modern monetarists is Milton Friedman of Chicago University. Other important names in USA include Anna Schwartz, Karl Brunner and Allan Meltzer. The prominent monetarists outside USA include David Laidler, Michael Parkin and Allan Walters. Modern monetarists explain not only the changes in general price level but also changes in output and employment. According to monetarists money supply is the prime determinant of nominal GDP in the short run and general price level in the long run. The output or real income is determined in the long run by the real factors like stock of capital, the level of technology, the propensity to save, natural resources, changes in human resources etc. However, inflation cannot occur without a more rapid increase in the quantity of money supply rather than an increase in output level. Monetarists refuted Keynesians argument that monetary policy is less effective in comparison with fiscal policies. According to them monetary policy should be conducted in a manner that money supply should grow at a constant rate. Money supply growth should be in line with economic growth targets. They believed in the inherent stability of the private sector and the cyclical fluctuations in the economy are mainly due to bad policies of the government. It is interesting to see that in monetarists' view point the severity of Great Depression (1929-33) was mainly due to the failure of Federal Reserve in preventing bank failures and the consequent reduction in money supply across the world. If a country suffers from inflationary pressures, it is mainly due to rapid expansion of money supply at a higher rate than the level of output.

Keynesian School and the Emergence of Macroeconomics

Before the so called 'Keynesian revolution' which led to the development of a separate branch of study in macroeconomics, it was existed under the name monetary theory. John Meynard Keynes has rewritten the history of economics and brought revolutionary changes in the field of economics. His teachers, including Alfred Marshall from the neoclassical school, taught the principles based on full employment, Say's law of markets and Laissez faire capitalism. But he challenged all of them and proved that what they believed was not right. The Great Depression (1929-33) was a period of great turmoil in Europe and America. Their economies were shattered and unemployment mounted to unprecedented levels. Several economists attempted to analyse the scenario and came up with theories and solutions. Keynes, in his famous book, A General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money was published in 1936, in which he had analysed the Great Depression of 1930s in a very convincing way. According to him the Great Depression was caused by the fall in aggregate demand which he referred to as effective demand. As a result of fall in aggregate demand recessionary trend appears which culminated in a depression. Keynes refute the Classical economists' viewpoints including full employment theory, monetary neutrality, Say's law, saving investment equality and so on. According to him, during recession, monetary policy would be highly unsuccessful because the increase in money supply would be trapped in the economy as the interest rate is low. Keynes called it as liquidity trap in his theory of liquidity preference. Keynes advocated for massive Government intervention in reviving aggregate demand in the economy. Keynes emphasized the role of Government spending and private investment in determining the level of income and employment in the economy. For him, full employment equilibrium is only an ideal situation, but not common as Classicals believed. It can also be at below or above full employment levels. He considered that the major cause of inflation is the increase in aggregate demand above the full employment level, aggregate supply remaining constant. He has given the famous quote, 'In the long run we all are dead'. His analyses are mostly based on short term in mind.

The success of Keynesian policy framework helped almost all economies to rebuild the economies after such a disastrous depression period. It led to the development of a separate branch of economics that is the so called macroeconomics. The Keynesian legacy was continued by his followers extending his principles to other areas of study. Economists like Hansen and Samuelson studied the application of Keynesian principles in different aspects. Harrod and Domar extended the Keynesian growth models into the long run development aspects of developed economies. For many years it was widely believed that Keynesian solutions are the ultimate end of it which can resolve all the problems of modern economies. In 1970s an unprecedented phenomenon appeared in advanced economies, the existence of inflationary trend along with mounting unemployment. It is referred to as stagflation, since inflation is present when the growth is stagnant. Till that time it was believed that during high inflation unemployment tends to be low because of better productivity and higher profitability. Besides, Keynesian policy suggestions didn't seem to be effective in this context and they were proved to bring more acute negative consequences. For instance, if Government spends more to curtail unemployment, inflation would increase further and the situation would be worse. Thus economics has grown much beyond Keynesian School of thought giving room for Post Keynesian Schools of economic thinking.

Supply side Economics

The supply side economics was emerged as an alternative to Keynesian demand management policies which were proved unsuccessful during the stagflation period. The supply side economists emphasized the role of managing the aggregate supply instead of aggregate demand. According to them stagflation is mainly caused due to leftward shift in aggregate supply curve cost push factors which increases the price level and curtails the output level. The problem can be resolved if we can raise the level of aggregate supply so that the aggregate supply curve would be shifted back to the previous level. Arthur Laffer has given the most important contributions in this field through drawing a connection between low marginal tax rates and high tax revenue. The provisions of supply side economists include deregulation and delicensing, reduction of marginal tax rates and its positive effects on output, saving, investment and tax revenue, liberalization policies etc. It is better known to some people as 'Reagonomics', since US president Ronald Reagon popularized greater tax cuts to boost the economy.

New classical Economics

New classical macroeconomics dates from the 1970s. It uses the neoclassical microeconomic foundations for macroeconomic analysis. The original idea of rational expectations was developed by John.F.Muth, but it was popularized by Robert Lucas. It is an attempt to explain macroeconomic problems and issues using micro-economic concepts like rational behaviour, and rational expectations. In Friedman's theory when aggregate demand increases, in the short run general price level increases, which induce firms to expand output and employment. In this nominal wages lag behind the changes in the general price level. According to Robert Lucas, a prominent figure associated with New Classical School, there is no reduction in unemployment rate since the increase in price level is correctly anticipated and incorporated by the workers and business firms into the wages. It is only the price level that rises, leaving the real output and unemployment unchanged. The other leading economists who have worked immensely in this field are Thomas Sargent, Neil Wallace and Edward Prescott.

Conclusion

In a closer analysis we can see that the growth and evolution of the subject economics happened systematically over a long period through additions and deletions by numerous economists, philosophers and policy makers. It is very important to note that economics is still an evolving subject as it deals with society and human behavior. It is the reason by which the domains of economics have been extended to new horizons. Interdisciplinary researches have been increasingly important in modern days. It also contributes to new thinking and new ways of finding solutions to existing problems. The issues pertaining to developing world are also widely addressed. The globalization and market integration moves have made it important to address issues globally rather than looking at issues at a micro level. The science of economics is still awaiting revolutionary changes that suit the current needs of the economies. It is nothing but the growth of the discipline under consideration.

References

M. De Vroey & P. Malgrange. (2011). The history of macroeconomics from Keynes's general theory to the present, Discussion paper 2011-28, ISSN 1379-244X D/2011/3082/028, IRES, University of Louvaine.

David Laidler. (2005). Keynes and the birth of modern macroeconomics, RBC Financial Group,  Economic Policy Research Institute (EPRI) Working Paper Series, Number 2005-2.

Ernesto Screpanti & Stefano Zamagni. (2006). An outline of the history of economic thought, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, New York.

H.L.Ahuja. (2012). Macroeconomics:Theory and Policy. 18^th Revised Edition, Sultan Chand Publishers.

Dornbusch, Fischer & Startz. (2010). Macroeconomics. 11^th  Edition, Tata Mc Graw Hill.

Dwivedi. D. N. (2005). Macroeconomics: Theory and Policy. Mc Graw Hill, New Delhi.

N. Gregory Mankiw. (2012). Macroeconomics. 8^th  Edition, Worth Publishers.

HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY EDUCATION IN INDIA- AMTOOR PAVANA RAO

HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY EDUCATION IN INDIA

The history of psychological thought in India can be traced back to ancient times. Higher education in India has always been influenced by the social, economic and political context at any given time. The history of formal education in this discipline began as a result of several events that shaped the history of India 19^th century.

Following the accession of India to the English empire after 1857 an education system modeled on the lines of Oxford and Cambridge was introduced in India. Formal education in Psychology began in the early part of the 20^th century. The first Psychology department set up in the University of Calcutta in 1916 produced people trained in the western models of Psychology. Till then Psychology which was introduced in 1905 was under the department of Philosophy. Under the guidance of Dr. N. N. Sen Gupta a student of Wundt many Psychologists were trained in this department. (c.f. Jain, K.A., 2005). Many people preferred to enroll in Western Universities to get trained in the subject.

The Indian Psychoanalytic Society was started by Dr. Girinder Shekar Bose in 1922. Department of Psychology was started in Mysore University and Lucknow University in 1924. Dr Gopalaswami who started this department brought out Indian adaptations of Psychological tests and initiated the application of psychological principles in Education. The first Indian journal in Psychology, ‘Indian Journal of Psychology was started in 1925. Department of Applied Psychology and Experimental Psychology were set up in the University of Allahabad in 1946. Research in this period was based on western models and laboratory experiments to bring Psychology under the umbrella of science in alignment with western positivism.

Psychology Education Post Independence

Independent departments of Psychology which usually came under department of Philosophy started in the 1960’s-70’s. Pandit Nehru encouraged education and research in Psychology. The Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICCSR) established in 1968 monitored the status of research in Psychology in India. The Institute of Psychological Research and Services in the department of Applied Psychology in Patna is involved in teaching and research.

The popularity of Psychology in academics can be attested by the growth in the number of Universities offering Psychology as a subject from 51/101 in 1975 to 70/219 in 2001(c.f. Jain, K.A. 2005). After the University Grants Commission (UGC) was set up in 1956 funding was provided to set up departments of Psychology at various universities. Psychology has been introduced in the Senior secondary level, graduation and post graduation level. Research is being carried out in these institutes as a part of funded research projects, doctoral and post doctoral work.

The pioneer of Clinical Psychology in India was Calcutta University whose applied section started in 1938 and also started training in Psychoanalysis in 1922.

Some of the major Institutes offering Psychology education in India are as follows:

The All India Institute of Mental Health which was set up in 1954 in Bangalore was renamed as National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS) in 1974 and it was an autonomous body and currently is a deemed University. The Department of Clinical Psychology offers a 2 year full time M Phil programme and a 3 year Phd programme.  They also provide short term training in various areas. Training programs were also introduced in Hospital for Mental Diseases in Ranchi in 1962.

Currently Psychology has been introduced in various organizations. Indian Institutes of Technology and Management offer doctoral programs in Psychology.

Psychology education and practice in India has been influenced by the West and Indian forms of Psychological thought has been sidelined till recently. People are now moving towards a more integrated and indigenized form of Psychology which is suitable for the Indian context. Indian Psychology as a paper has been introduced in most courses of Psychology.

References:

Dalai, A. K. (2011). A journey back to the roots: Psychology in India. Foundations of Indian Psychology Volume 1: Theories and Concepts, 27.

Jain, A. K. (2005). Psychology in India. The Psychologist, 18(4), 206-208.

Misra, G., & Paranjpe, E. A. C. (2012). Psychology in modern India. In Encyclopedia of the history of psychological theories (pp. 881-892). Springer US.

Singh, A. K. (1991). The comprehensive history of psychology. Motilal Banarsidass Publ..

http://www.nimhans.kar.nic.in/mhsp/default.htm