Emergence Of Computer Science As A Discipline

  by Sreeja C .S.; Reg no 1345003, PhD Scholar,Christ university

The history of computer science began long before the modern discipline of computer science that emerged in the 20th century, and hinted at in the centuries prior. The progression, from mechanical inventions and mathematical theories towards the modern concepts and machines, formed a major academic field and the basis of a massive worldwide industry. The 1960s was a time of tremendous technological advancement. In the 1960's, computer science came into its own as a discipline. In fact, the term was coined by George Forsythe, a numerical analyst. The first computer science department was formed at Purdue University in 1962. The first person to receive a Ph. D. from a computer science department was Richard Wexelblat, at the University of Pennsylvania, in December 1965. During this decade, Stanford University also established departments of computer science, ASCII became the standard for 7-bit code information exchange, the Basic programming language was developed, Doug Engelbart invented the mouse, and the US Department of Defence commissioned the Arpanet, the precursor to today's Internet.

Computer Science Education In India

The initial period 1955 to 1970 was a period of exploration with no specific government policies guiding this technology. However, there were a number of initiatives taken in education such as the establishment of the Indian Institutes of Technology and also starting the design and production of computers. The Bhabha Committee appointed by the Government of India in 1963 realized the importance  of  electronics  and  computers  in  national  development  and suggested  establishment  of  the  Department  of  Electronics  (DoE)  in  the Government  of  India  (GoI)  to  promote  rapid growth of electronics and computers. The history of the development of computers in India is inextricably linked to the political history of India.  The Directorate General of Technical Development of the Governmentof India drafted plans to support manufacture of all varieties of items.Planning also has some very good features. The first plan realized the importance of higher technical education and five Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) were planned. Government also gave scholarships to a number ofmeritorious studentsto study abroad or get practical training in industries. Later the government also set up Regional Engineering Colleges(REC)one in eachstate of Indiato provide good quality technical education. (RECs have now been renamed National Institutes of Technology,( NITs.)

Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur was the first Institute in India to start Computer Science education. The initial "computer-related" courses were started at IIT Kanpur in August 1963 on an IBM 1620 system installed in the nation's first "computer classroom," a novelty then even in many North American and European universities. Gradually, the Institute drew upon some of the brightest young Indians in Computer Science to serve on its faculty and initiated an independent academic program in 1971, leading to Ph.D. and M. Tech. degrees. The undergraduate program started later, with the first batch graduating in 1983. The department was formally established in 1984. Many of the nation's leading experts, educationists and consultants in computer science today are the alumni of this department. Currently, the department has a faculty of 22 whose interests span almost all areas of Computer Science. The department admits about 30 students every year in the B.Tech. program and 50 students in the M.Tech.  program. 15 students are admitted to the dual-degree program, which results in students getting both a B.Tech.  and an M.Tech. degree at the end of 5 years. There are about 15 students registered in Ph.D. program at a time. There are two software engineers and two other staff attached to the laboratory facilities. Besides, there are a number of research engineers working in various sponsored projects.

How Computer as a discipline evolved in IITK

One of the computer installed early in India was an IBM1620 in August installed early in India was an IBM 1620 in August 1963 at the Indian Institute of Technoloy,Kanpur (IITK). It was the first computer with a FORTRANcompiler to be installed in an educational institution in India.The IBM 1620 was imported with financial assistance of theUSAgency for International Development (USAID) which channeled the funding through the Kanpur IndoAmerican Program (KIAP).  KIAP was a consortium of nine major US Universities which assisted establishment of the IIT at Kanpur by sending visiting faculty members and by assisting in the purchase of equipment.One of the major decisions taken by KIAP was to install a computer at IITK.  In 1963, the .IBM 1620 was a popular computer used by a number of universities in the USA.It was a small digit oriented computer with a 60K digit main memory, three tape drives and a punched card reader/writer. The punched outputs as well as  programs punched on cards were printed with an IBM 407 accounting machine. Besides this there were 20 key punch machines.

The IBM 1620 was installed and maintained by IBM engineers.KIAP sent Harry D.Huskey of the University of California, Berkeley, and Forman S.Acton and Irving Rabinowitz from the Princeton University to educate the faculty and students of IITK on using the computer. As soon as the IBM 1620 started working a ten day intensive course on programming for the faculty of IITK was designed by this group. Huskey took a proactive step and instead of 18 restricting the course to IITK faculty, he invited scientists, engineers,andthefaculty members of other institutions in India to attend the course.  Each course had around 60 participants who were given hands on experience in FORTRAN programming and numerical methods.These courses which started in 1963 were conducted thrice a year.  The course was so popular that it was continued till 1975 by the IITK faculty after the American Professors left in 1965.  Over 1500 scientists working in a number of Universities and research laboratories were trained.  IITK  also  pioneered  by  introducing  in  1964  a  compulsory  course  in in programming and numerical methods to all engineering students.

The course was so popular that it was continued till 1975 by the IITK faculty after the American Professors left in 1965.  Over 1500 scientists working in a number of Universities and research laboratories were trained.  IITK also pioneered by introducing in 1964 a compulsory course in programming and numerical methods to all engineering students. This is the history of how computer science became a discipline in IIT Kanpur. It was a beginning of a new discipline which attracted so many students across India. After that so many universities started computer science as a department which includes  Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology and Delhi University.

Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad (MNNIT or NIT Allahabad), formerly Motilal Nehru Regional Engineering College (MNREC), is a public higher education institute located in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India. It is one of the National Institutes of Technology, and like the rest of them, classified as an Institute of National Importance. In the survey carried out by ET Now-Economic Times jointly, MNNIT Allahabad was declared as the best engineering institution of North India and ranked No.1 in overall ranking. The college has distinction of being first in the country to start an undergraduate programme in Computer Science & Engineering in 1976-77.

Department of Computer Science was established in University of Delhi, in the year 1981, with the objective of imparting quality education in the field of Computer Science. With rapidly evolving technology and the continuous need for innovation the department has always produced quality professionals, holding important positions in Information Technology industry in India and abroad. The Department started the three year Master of Computer Applications (MCA) programme in the year 1982, which was among the first such program in India.

It is concluded that the initiatives taken by the government in the late 70s to promote  education  in  IT, setting  up  of  R  and D  centers  and funding  a  large number  of  research  projects with  the  assistance  of  the  United  Nations. Development Programme (UNDP) provided the human resources which enabled the IT industry to grow .Now so many colleges have computer science as department like other natural sciences. Most of the universities are working on major research projects on computer sciences as well.

References

1.       https://www.computer.org/portal/web/about/History-1960s

2.       http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computer_science

3.       http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/

4.       http://www.iitk.ac.in/infocell/flier/cse1.pdf

5.       http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motilal_Nehru_National_Institute_of_Technology_Allahabad

6.       http://www.iitk.ac.in/inf HISTORY OF COMPUTING IN INDIA

7.       Ross Bassett, "Aligning India in the Cold war Era: Indian Technical Elites, the Indian 

Institute of Technology at Kanpur and Computing in India and the United States", 

Technology and Culture, Vol.50, Oct. 2009, pp.783‐810 .

8.       E.C.Subba Rao, "An Eye for Excellence: Fifty Innovative years of IIT, Kanpur", Harper‐

Collins, India, New Delhi, 2008 

History of Computer Education in India : Siji T. Mathew

Ph.D  Research scholar, Dept. of Computer Science, Christ University, Bangalore

  India was one of the first countries of the world to utilize the capability of computers in Education, R & D, Planning and National Development. Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur was the first Institute in India to start Computer Science education in India .The program was inaugurated in the month of August 1963 .The nation's first "computer classroom" was installed with IBM 1620 system. 

Computer science  as a subject  in School Education

The computer education in primary school was a stepping-stone for higher education. In the year 1987 , Don Bosco School  started computer  education and  was the first school in north-east India to have computer education .This is a Catholic school located in Guwahati, Assam, India.

University of Delhi- first MCA course

Department of Computer Science was established in University of Delhi, in the year 1981, with the objective of imparting quality education in the field of Computer Science. The Department started the three year Master of Computer Applications (MCA) programme in the year 1982, which was among the first such programmes in India. The department offers:

• M.Sc. Computer Science

• B.Tech. Computer Science and B.Sc. (H) Computer Science

• To demonstrate that an open learning approach to computer education is not only feasible but probably preferable.

• To increase both accessibility and acceptability of IGNOU Computer Education Programmes

• To disseminate learning and knowledge through an innovative multiple media teaching/ learning system.

The Pune University, Computer Science Department (PUCSD)

 University of Pune  aims at providing quality education in Computer Science. The Department is one of the earliest CS Departments started in Indian Universities. In 1980, when computer science was little known and the word IT didn't exist, a one-year programme was started towards the B.Sc. (Applied) degree in Computer Science. The M.C.A. programme was launched in 1983, the M.Tech. degree programme in 1985, and the one year B.Sc. (Applied) programme was upgraded to a two year M.Sc. in Computer Science in 1986.

IIT Kharagpur

In early 1970’s IIT Kharagpur introduced P.G course in computer science Engineering in the Electrical and ECE department . Btech  course started in the year 1979. In the year 82-83 all IITs started the dept of Computer Science and engineering. Pg computer and IT were started in 1986 to train students in it &technology. The first Phd was in 1980’s .

IIT Kanpur

It was the first department in India to offer Computer Science as a separate discipline.

The following significant features of the B.Tech program designed in 1963-1964 were unique in India at that time:

ü       A strong base in basic and engineering sciences and mathematics

ü      A large humanities and social sciences content

ü       Semester system of education

ü       Continuous evaluation of students by their instructor

ü       Evaluation in terms of grades rather than marks

ü       Course-wise promotion

ü       Early introduction of computer education

IIT Madras

IIT madras is the first institute in India to offer sophisticated computing in the early 70’s with IBM system 370. In the year 1973 summer, first batch of MTech, Ms by research and  Phd coursers were stared. The B.Tech degree programme stared  in the year 1983.

IIT Delhi

The department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi started Computer Technology as a course in 1976, which was even before the establishment of Computer Science & Engineering department. Courses offered were PhD, M.S. (Research) and M.Tech. The later established department of Computer Science and Engineering is now renowned for cutting edge research and for imparting state of the art education to the students of B.Tech, M.Tech, M.S.(Research) and PhD.

IIT BHU

       Founded as three engineering and technological institutions during the freedom struggle by Mahamana Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya, were later merged to form the Institute of Technology (IT-BHU) in 1971.    To preserve its excellence and national character, admission procedures through the Joint Entrance Examination (JEE of the IITs) for undergraduate courses and Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE conducted by the IITs & IISc.) for the post-graduate courses were established.

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

 Department of Computer Science and Automation, IISc, Bangalore, India, was created in the year 1969. The vision of the department is to enable India's excellence in the world of computer science and automation. The department has been a pioneering academic centre for higher education, research, and innovation in key areas of computer science.

Rastriya Computer Saksharta Mission-1995

Computer Based Society For Education has started 'Rastriya Computer Saksharta Mission' in India.  Through this a large amount of student and even all kind of people got computer literacy for free of cost. Students can get Free Computer Primary Computer education from Computer Based Society For Education affiliated Institute or Cyber School based on 'Rashtriya Computer Saksharta Mission'.

IGNOU: The School of Computer & Information Sciences

The Indira Gandhi National Open University  is a distance learning national university located in IGNOU road, Maidan Garhi, New Delhi, India.This is a distance learning provide higher education opportunities particularly to the disadvantaged segments of society, encourage, coordinate and set standards for distance and open education in India and strengthen the human resources of India through education .

The School of Computer & Information Sciences (SOCIS) was established in 1991 to provide computer education at the doorsteps of learners with the following objectives:

Indian Computer Education Society (ICES)

Indian Computer Education Society (ICES) started functioning as a voluntary organization in 1990 when computer education was in its immature stage. The society knew that India could prosper only if the IT education is spread far and wide, and jobless young are initiated in to it. The Society was registered to encourage educated jobless youths to start computer centres in as many places as possible. They assisted the state Govt as an external agency for the IT @ School project during 2002-07,started a campus at kochi with all infrastructural facilities to give up-to-date training to the resource persons in member institutes. It was spread over  Tamilnadu,Goa, UP and Hyderabad with well equipped member institutes.

Mohamed sathak polytechnic college

Mohamed sathak polytechnic college is the first institution started by the Mohamed Sathak Trust in 1980 at Kilakarai in Ramanathapuram District of Tamil Nadu. It is a Government aided institution, affiliated to the State Board of Technical Education and Training, Government of Tamil Nadu and approved by the AICTE, New Delhi.

Institute of Engineering and Rural Technology

The Institute was the first polytechnic in India to be granted autonomy. IERT is now wholly in charge of its syllabus, admission procedure as well as diplomas offered. The Institute offers B.Tech courses in seven disciplines - Electronics Engineering, Computer Science and Engineering Industrial Production Engineering, instrumentation and control engineering, civil engineering, mechanical engineering and electrical engineering.

References

National Informatics Centre, India (http://www.nic.in)

Indian Statistical Institute (http://www.isical.ac.in)

http://www.iitk.ac.in/infocell/Archive/dirnov3/cover_story.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Bosco_High_School,_Guwahati#First_Phase

http://mgrcollege.ac.in/computerscience.html

http://www.iceskochi.org/wices.html

http://www.livescience.com/20718-computer-history.html

http://books.google.co.in/books?id=QCYEJXzmbpQC&pg=PA127&lpg=PA127&dq=computer-education+in+india+history&source=bl&ots=h10rjBbg5F&sig=l6Lp8Yq_ccck2YnFl7utrVmtUEY&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ZekzU7qfGMXqrAfIpoG4DQ&ved=0CGMQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=computer-education%20in%20india%20history&f=false

http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/sixty-years-of-it-in-india/article4435223.ece

History of Management Education

Jesu Raju Thomas

PhD-Management

Reg No:1340001

History of Management Education:

The verb manage arrives from the Italian word maneggiare which means to handle especially tools. The word manage derives from the Latin word manus. Management has involved in every kind of activity whether it is a family event, sport event or managing Business. Complexity of such activity also increasing day by day so discipline of management continuingly searching for new solution for the problems. As a result it is continuously emerging from ages. The conceptualisation of management happened during 18^thand 19^th century. Industrial revolution in the 18^th and 19^th century resulted in many approaches to management. Before the Industrial revelation owners used to maintain their business so there was not much systematic recording of the transaction. Industrial revolution made the businesses to grow and ownership also changed from individual to shareholders, groups. To manage the business different hierarchy of managers are emerged to manage the operation of the business. This resulted in the development of formal training institutions for the managers. Many education institutions are started courses on Management. 

Management is a process of converting the resources to utility. Management involves the five major functions they are Planning, Directing, Organising, Staffing, Directing, Controlling. Management is the process of using human capital of an enterprise to contribute to the success of the enterprise or any institutions.

The concept of management has existed for millennia. The concept of strengths and weakness of managers are used in 6^th Century BC by Chinese general Sun Tzu, The Art of War.

Arthashastra by Chanakya which was written around 3000 BC discuss about best practices of govern. The wealth of Nations by Adam Smith in 1776 explains about efficient organisation work by division of labour.

During 19^th century many management theories are developed such as resource allocation, production and pricing. There was also development technical production such as standardization, quality control, cost accounting. In late 19^th century salaried managers were existed in large corporation.

Scholars like tried to apply the principle of other streams such as psychology, production, sociology to management. The Harvard Business School offered first Master of Business Management degree in 1921.  End of the 20^th century business management became one of the specialised streams with separate branches namely Human resources Management, operation management, strategic management, Marketing, Financial management, information technology management.

In the 21^st century management theory became part of major disciplines. Management concepts are used in NGOs, Government, and Educational institutions etc. 

The history of important first business schools are as follows

1819- ESCP Europe (Ecole Supérieure de Commerce de Paris) was founded in Paris, France world first business school

1855 - The Institut Supérieur de Commerce d'Anvers and the Institut Saint-Ignace;

1857 – The Budapest Business School was founded in the Austrian Empire. First business school in Central Europe.

1871 – The Rouen Business School

1881 – The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania is the United States' first business school.

1898 – The University of St. Gallen Established  the first university in Switzerland teaching business and economics. One of the oldest French business schools.

900 - The first graduate school of business in the United States, the Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth College,

1902 - The Birmingham Business School is the United Kingdom's first business school.

1908 - Harvard Business School was founded at Harvard University. It was the first program in the world to offer the Master of Business Administration degree in 1921.

1909 - Charles H. Dyson School of Applied Economics and Management They founded undergraduate business program.

1946 – The Thunderbird School of Global Management, then called the American Institute for Foreign Trade, focused exclusively on global business.

1949 – The University of Pretoria in South Africa founded the oldest business school in Africa.

1949 - XLRI - India's oldest business management school is founded

1954 - The Faculty of Management Studies (FMS), University of Delhi is among one of the oldest business schools in India

1955 - The Institute of Business Administration, Karachi was the first business school to be established outside North America to offer an MBA degree

1991 – The IEDC-Bled School of Management was the first business school to offer an MBA program inEastern Europe

1994 – CEIBS (China Europe International Business School) was the first business school in China to have received funding from a foreign government, namely the European Commission.

Business schools are first established in Europe followed by America and Asia. XLRI and FMS are the old management institutions of India. 

The important people who contributed for the development of management theory are as follows

1856 – 1915:  Fredric Winslow Taylor (Father of Scientific Management)– Designing jobs which improved the industrial efficiency. He is the Author of principle of scientific management.

1864-1920: Max Weber – Management organisation and structure. He has developed Bureaucratic Theory of management

1880–1949: Elton Mayo- Hawthorne Studies. He was also Harvard Professor recommend that managers should become people oriented

1844 – 1924: Henry R. Towne laid emphasis on the need of study of management separately and to learn. He was the first to come up with a new social role for engineers and to understand the importance of management techniques for engineers.

The important management theories developed are Scientific Management by Frederick Taylor, Taylor’s Four Principles of Management, General Administrative Theory by Herial Fayol and Weber’s Ideal Bureaucracy.

Management study became very popular due to the need of the hour for all kind or organisation. Due to the globalisation and need of different level hierarchy in the large organisation created opportunities for the managers with knowledge and experience of management. At present there are many management related courses in different educational institutions.

References:

Authrstream. (n.d.). Retrieved March 31, 2014, from www.authrstream: http://www.authorstream.com/presentation/bhavin2750-1324264-the-development-of-management-theory/

Wikipedia. (2014, March 31). Retrieved March 31, 2014, from Wikipedia.org: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki.Business_school

History of Psychology in India

 Psychology as an academic discipline made a new beginning in India in the first decade of this century. Calcutta University established the first Department of Psychology in 1915 under the leadership of Dr N.N. Sengupta, who had worked under Professor Hugo Munsterberg, a former student of Wundt. Due to the fact that Calcutta University became the first centre of psychological research and teaching in India, it was able to play a key role in the development of psychology in the country (Kundu & Chakrabati, 1979).

Before independence, psychological research in India was greatly influenced by the British universities. Most of the Indian psychologists during this time were trained abroad and they followed the western theories of psychology. This psychology, transplanted to India as part of the total imperialist domination by the West, came as a ready-made intellectual package in the first decade of the century (Nandy, 1974). In doing so it almost entirely challenged and to a greater extend replaced the intellectual traditions and indigenous systems that had existed for thousands of years – systems that contained elaborate theories about human nature, actions, personality and their relationships with the world. For instance, mentally ill patients in India were historically treated using various approaches such as herbal or ayurvedic medicines, yoga and music (Prasadarao & Sudhir, 2001). But with the advent of scientific (Western) psychology all these traditional and effective treatments were replaced with ‘scientific’ techniques.

Following the independence of India in 1947, there were many efforts from the part of government to integrate social science into science and technology research as part of the nation building programme. India’s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was a great promoter of psychology, encouraging students to go abroad to obtain their degrees under eminent psychology professors. He also invited and encouraged psychologists to research on certain issues in India.

Dr Girindra Shekar Bose, who succeeded Dr N.N. Sengupta at Calcutta University, was a medical practitioner who became a pioneer in psychoanalysis in India. In 1922 he established the Indian Psychoanalytical Society, affiliated to the international Psychoanalytic Association. The Indian Psychological Association appeared in 1925.The Indian Association of Clinical Psychologists (IACP) was started in 1968 (Prabhu, 1983). The Indian Psychological Association appeared in 1925.The Indian Association of Clinical Psychologists (IACP) was started in 1968 (Prabhu, 1983).

In the early days psychology was mainly applied in clinical settings, and courses focused on training clinical psychologists. With the growth in the discipline, counseling psychology became popular and was extensively used in different areas of counseling. The growth in the economy and industrial sector resulted in the use of psychology in industrial and organizational settings. Psychology has also been applied in military settings since independence. After independence the defense ministry emphasized the need to include psychologists on research and selection boards of armed forces to provide help and assistance and then they started doing it. Also in the fields of sports and health, psychology is widely used today and disciplines have emerged in all these areas.

Until the mid-1980s the public viewed psychology primarily as a remedy for abnormal behavior. But the popularity of psychology has increased a lot with its application in different and diverse areas such as education, organizations, defense, health, sports etc. According to the Association of Indian Universities, 51 of the 101 recognised universities were offering psychology by the end of 1975. By 1995 the number of universities had risen to 219 and those offering psychology at various levels had risen to 70 (Prasadarao & Sudhir, 2001). The period after the mid-1990s has seen an even sharper growth in the popularity of psychology. Psychology has been introduced in the curriculum of senior secondary schools.

Indian psychology has come a long way in the hundred years of its existence. Research in psychology is conducted in many universities and research establishments. It is not known how many colleges and universities offer psychology courses and how many psychologists are professionally active.  The National Institute of Mental Health and Neurociences is an institution of international repute for research in clinical psychology and training clinical psychologists. The Central Institute of Psychiatry, B.M. Institute are among other highly reputed institutions carrying out research in clinical psychology.

Indian psychology in the twenty-first century shows that the initial emphasis on the replication of Western studies has given way to socially relevant research, and that there is a shift from experimental work (micro) toward understanding the psychological, social and cultural contexts (macro) using qualitative approaches. Academicians and research have started looking at problems in a more holistic manner and an eclectic approach is preferred today.

History of Higher education | By Roopashree

Hi Sir,

Please find the attached document on "History of Higher Education
(Technical Education) in India and Karnataka"

By
Name : Roopashree H R
Reg no : 1347102


Regards,
Roopashree

Higher education in chemistry

REKHA KUMARI (1345102)

History of Management Education in India

If we look at the Management education or business Education in India, it has been proliferating at a very high rate. India trains more than 100,000 degrees annually in Management education. The liberalisation of Indian education during 1990’s has been responsible for this growth.

In India, we can trace Business education way back to the 19^th century. British government administration needs were fulfilled by this education to some extent. The graduates joined as clerks in the British administration.

In Chennai in 1903 was set up the India’s first business school – commercial school of pachiappa charities. In 1913, Sydenham College in Mumbai was the first college level business school to be founded. This was followed by Shri Ram College of commerce in Delhi in 1920.

If we look at the Indian Business schools, most of them have followed the US type of systems in terms of pedagogy, curriculum and interfacing with industry.

In the initial years of business education, it was not popular. All bright students were expected to join science stream and take engineering at the IIT’s or other technical institutes. Afterwards they joined companies as technical supervisors and then moved up to take up managerial positions.

During 1980’s business education got increased importance. One of the reasons was the difficulty in getting admission into science stream as the demand was more than available seats in science stream. Students started joining management stream.  Companies also increased hiring commerce graduates at junior executive level and developing them for executive posts.

Commerce stream was being looked as an alternative for becoming an executive in the corporate world. Commerce education aim was to develop knowledge of business transactions from economics and accounting angle.  Management education aims to develop knowledge about overall business and also its different functions. It was focused on graduate levels and help in developing future leaders.

In 1961 two IIM’s were launched.  IIM Calcutta with collaboration from Sloan school of Management at MIT  and  IIM Ahmadabad started with Harvard business school help.

With respect to quality, only the top B-schools are giving quality education.  The rest of the schools require to increase their quality level to ensure the students become more ready for corporate world.

 During 1990’s growth in the number of business schools occurred and also management education received lot of status.  Many of the big private companies started recruiting business graduates for the management jobs.

Some of  the skills which business  graduates  were expected to have  were  good accounting skills and also operational management skills, marketing skills,  good oral and written communications , critical  thinking and as well team working skills.   And also knowledge of information technology is required for leveraging its power in the business arena.

The teaching pedagogy has been undergoing constant changes in the Management education to suit the above requirements.

In addition to MBA programmes   many universities started BBA programmes and these have become popular.  BBA programmes are being preferred to traditional commerce programmes.

As management institutes started growing, in 1973 two more IIM’s were started one in Bangalore and another in Lucknow. During late 1990’s two more were added to the list of  IIM’s  one at Calicut and another at  Indore. Opening of more IIM’s helped in developing management education across  the country.

ICFAI  set up in 1994  ICFAI  Business school and it has branches  in all the major cities of India. It teaches MBA in different programs and it uses industry people for teaching.

IGNOU also helped in the spread of  business education in India by making it affordable to the common masses. It’s open learning programmes has become successful. It also has launched Gyan Darshan a TV channel to deliver the business course content  across India.

Some of the metrics used by business schools for measuring quality are: students quality, placement,  faculty development and teaching pedagogy.

Getting admission to one of the premium business schools is considered to help students in their growth. Common admission tests are conducted by IIM’s for admission into their schools. Other business institutes also use the CAT score for their admission process.

The Business schools get students from a variety of background like engineering, commerce, medicine, science and liberal arts. This helps in the diversity and a good classroom experience. Business schools are continuously upgrading the skills they are imparting to make it more relevant to the industry requirements.

The quality of management education is also influenced by the pedagogy used by the business schools. An efficient pedagogy can facilitate an effective learning in the class. In most business schools it is mandatory to do 2 months summer internship in a business organisation which helps in honing the skills of the students. The challenge in business education is to ensure quality in all the  business  schools  particularly tier 2 and tier 3 not just tier 1.

 References

1)   Vipin Gupta and Kamala Gollakata, “Quality in Business education: A study of the Indian context . “  Paper prepared for and presented at the Business Education and Emerging Market Economies: Trends and Prospects Conference, Technology Square, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, November 7, 2003

2)      Arun Kumar Kaushik   and Jagbir Singh Dalal “Management Education in India Research Paper”  2011.  Uttarakhand Technical University

B.Padmanabh
1340002

HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA Mary Varughese

Psychology was first introduced as a subject in the Philosophy department of the Calcutta University in 1916. It had an alien quality to it, as Indians were not used to the empirical approach that was prevalent at that time. The then Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy, Brojendra Nath drafted the first syllabus. He was also the first to establish the first experimental lab in 1905 that later became the seat of the department when it was established. Studies in this lab revolved around depth perception, psychophysics and attention. Recognizing the scientific nature of psychology, the Indian Science Congress included it as a separate section in 1923. The Indian Psychological Association was founded in 1924. Soon after this, Girindra Shekhar Bose, who was in close contact with Freud, founded the Indian Psychoanalytic Society in 1922.

Bose, after receiving his PhD from Calcutta, established the Lumbini Park Mental Hospital in Calcutta in 1940 that brought out the journal ‘Samiksha’. Many Indian psychologists had contacts with the famous contributors to psychology during those days. Jung, Meyers, and Spearman were present during the Silver Jubilee Session of the Indian Science Congress. M.V. Gopalswami, head of the department of psychology at Mysore was trained in the London University with Spearman in the mental testing tradition. He helped develop Indian adaptations of Western intelligence tests. He was the first to establish the first animal lab in India.

The department at Patna began in 1946 along with the Institute of Psychological Research and Services headed by H. P. Maiti. Maiti was trained with Bose and was psychoanalytic in his approach and very soon the department at Patna became a major center for counselling services and research.

The empirical nature of psychology during those years meant that psychologists in India had to compartmentalize their aesthetic satisfaction of Hindu mythologies without seeking to bring the two together (Kakar, 1982). Psychologists were also aware that this singularity of the positivist approach was unable to fully explain the psycho-social nature of the Indian society or the Indian mind. Hence, there was no overlap between what the reality of Indian society was and the subjects being studied in the departments of Psychology during the British period. This also meant that they were unable to make any major societal changes or engage in research that would bring about social awareness.

 This bifurcation of the actual from the academic did not change even after Independence. In fact, it only become more pronounced. In most universities, there was a divide now between the Philosophy department and the Psychology department. Most of the philosophy professors became psychology professors and were very excited to be finally considered ‘scientific’. Hence, they continued to study areas like memory, psychophysics, perception, learning, pattern recognition and the like. They did not utilize their understanding of Indian Philosophy to help them better understand the Indian mind and behaviour.

Psychologists also did not focus on theory building and neither did they stick to any particular theory in their writings. Decisions were based more on what projects generated more funds. They also distanced themselves from issues of national interest. Hence, Psychology was distant in nature and it lacked a vision to take it forward.

But, in 1950, after the partition of India, the Ministry of Education sought the services of Gardner Murphy to help Indian scholars investigate the causes of communal violence. This endeavor resulted in a book called ‘In the Minds of Men’. This was a not just towards academic writing, but also towards understanding the mind set of Indian people.

Post Independence, there was also a shift of the growth of Psychology outside the university campuses. Kamla Chowdhury conducted a large-scale survey on motivational levels in textile industry workers. NIMHANS in 1955 and the Hospital for Mental Diseases in Ranchi introduced advanced training programmes for the benefit of personnel selection tests. 

In the 1950s-1960s the field of psychology saw huge progress as the UGC encouraged various universities to begin courses in psychology by funding them. As a result the number colleges offering psychology increased to a 32. The interests of the person heading the department at any given time governed the specialties that the departments focused on. Hence, departments were not able to focus on one field of specialization over a sustainable period of time.

The UGC continued in its efforts to promote excellence in education. In the late sixties it began a scheme of Centers for Advanced Studies and Centers for Special Assistance. Under these schemes the psychology departments at Utkal and Allahabad were given the status of Centers of Advanced Studies in Psychology. The aim was to improve the quality to be on par with the rest of the world.  The UGC expected these departments to take the lead in areas of advanced research.

The exchange programmes engaged by the fellowships of Commonwealth, Fulbright and Ford Foundation, encouraged many Indian scholars to be trained in the west (Britain, Canada, and the United States) and sharpen their skills. On their return these scholars were able to impart skill and engage in projects that had social impacts. Another development during this time was that psychology was introduced to various professional colleges like engineering, agriculture, management and medical sciences. However, the subject was taught by junior staff, research assistants, and demonstrators and received a low priority. This has not changed much even to this day.

In the seventies, many researchers became frustrated with being unable to conduct research within the university departments and hence research endeavors were taken outside the university departments. The universities were also not being able to control the quality of students entering the departments. The universities were also being effected by the politics of the nation and there was unrest on their campuses. Some of the institutes where A.N.S. Institute of Social Studies (Patna), Center for the Study of Developing Societies (New Delhi), and the National Institute of Community Development (Hyderabad).

The area of psychological testing continued to increase. Many western tests were being adapted to the Indian population. Out of the 503 tests, 218 were personality tests. However, these tests did not establish validation and seemed to have a language barrier. Hence, these tests were suited only for the urban population. The quality of these tests were thus in question.

The Second Handbook of tests by Pestonjee showed considerable improvement. This handbook showed improvements in the areas of establishing validity and including Indian adaptations of western tests. These tests were then used to conduct research on the prevalence of mental health problems by Sethi in Lucknow (1972), Dube in Agra (1970), Rao in rural Bengal (1972), Verghese in Vellore (1973). However, these epidemiological studies lacked depth in the study of the problem. Areas of drug abuse, yoga and health, psycholsocial aspects of family planning and mental retardation was slowing gaining momentum in the seventies. 

Towards the late seventies and eighties there was a noticeable change in the focus of research. Scholars began to research on social problems, Indian concepts and theories. Some of the areas of interest were teacher-pupil model in clinical counseling (Neki, 1973), leadership style – nurturant task-master (Sinha, 1980), the role of traditional healers in maintaining mental health in traditional societies (Kakar, 1982, and 1991), concept of stress based on ancient scripture (Rao, 1983), concepts of stress based on ancient scriptures (Bhavasari, Goswami, and Evans, 1986), and a measure to study the concept of detachment and its mental health consequences (1992). However, the majority of the research topics tend to be replicative and imitative. 

 The present trend in research and higher education in India is towards indigenization. An example in this trend is the book edited by Misra and Mohanty (2002) titled ‘Perspectives on Indigenous Psychology. 

History of Management Education in India

If we look at the Management education or business Education in India, it has been proliferating at a very high rate. India trains more than 100,000 degrees annually in Management education. The liberalisation of Indian education during 1990’s has been responsible for this growth.

In India, we can trace Business education way back to the 19^th century. British government administration needs were fulfilled by this education to some extent. The graduates joined as clerks in the British administration.

In Chennai in 1903 was set up the India’s first business school – commercial school of pachiappa charities. In 1913, Sydenham College in Mumbai was the first college level business school to be founded. This was followed by Shri Ram College of commerce in Delhi in 1920.

If we look at the Indian Business schools, most of them have followed the US type of systems in terms of pedagogy, curriculum and interfacing with industry.

In the initial years of business education, it was not popular. All bright students were expected to join science stream and take engineering at the IIT’s or other technical institutes. Afterwards they joined companies as technical supervisors and then moved up to take up managerial positions.

During 1980’s business education got increased importance. One of the reasons was the difficulty in getting admission into science stream as the demand was more than available seats in science stream. Students started joining management stream.  Companies also increased hiring commerce graduates at junior executive level and developing them for executive posts.

Commerce stream was being looked as an alternative for becoming an executive in the corporate world. Commerce education aim was to develop knowledge of business transactions from economics and accounting angle.  Management education aims to develop knowledge about overall business and also its different functions. It was focused on graduate levels and help in developing future leaders.

In 1961 two IIM’s were launched.  IIM Calcutta with collaboration from Sloan school of Management at MIT  and  IIM Ahmadabad started with Harvard business school help.

With respect to quality, only the top B-schools are giving quality education.  The rest of the schools require to increase their quality level to ensure the students become more ready for corporate world. 

During 1990’s growth in the number of business schools occurred and also management education received lot of status.  Many of the big private companies started recruiting business graduates for the management jobs.

Some of  the skills which business  graduates  were expected to have  were  good accounting skills and also operational management skills, marketing skills,  good oral and written communications , critical  thinking and as well team working skills.   And also knowledge of information technology is required for leveraging its power in the business arena.

The teaching pedagogy has been undergoing constant changes in the Management education to suit the above requirements.

In addition to MBA programmes   many universities started BBA programmes and these have become popular.  BBA programmes are being preferred to traditional commerce programmes.

As management institutes started growing, in 1973 two more IIM’s were started one in Bangalore and another in Lucknow. During late 1990’s two more were added to the list of  IIM’s  one at Calicut and another at  Indore. Opening of more IIM’s helped in developing management education across  the country.

ICFAI  set up in 1994  ICFAI  Business school and it has branches  in all the major cities of India. It teaches MBA in different programs and it uses industry people for teaching.

IGNOU also helped in the spread of  business education in India by making it affordable to the common masses. It’s open learning programmes has become successful. It also has launched Gyan Darshan a TV channel to deliver the business course content  across India.

Some of the metrics used by business schools for measuring quality are: students quality, placement,  faculty development and teaching pedagogy.

Getting admission to one of the premium business schools is considered to help students in their growth. Common admission tests are conducted by IIM’s for admission into their schools. Other business institutes also use the CAT score for their admission process.

The Business schools get students from a variety of background like engineering, commerce, medicine, science and liberal arts. This helps in the diversity and a good classroom experience. Business schools are continuously upgrading the skills they are imparting to make it more relevant to the industry requirements.

The quality of management education is also influenced by the pedagogy used by the business schools. An efficient pedagogy can facilitate an effective learning in the class. In most business schools it is mandatory to do 2 months summer internship in a business organisation which helps in honing the skills of the students. The challenge in business education is to ensure quality in all the  business  schools  particularly tier 2 and tier 3 not just tier 1.

  

References

1)   Vipin Gupta and Kamala Gollakata, “Quality in Business education: A study of the Indian context . “  Paper prepared for and presented at the Business Education and Emerging Market Economies: Trends and Prospects Conference, Technology Square, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, November 7, 2003

2)      Arun Kumar Kaushik   and Jagbir Singh Dalal “Management Education in India Research Paper”  2011.  Uttarakhand Technical University

B.Padmanabh

Reg no 1340002

History of Psychology Sai Kirthi Kamath PhD in Psychology

History of Development of Psychology in India

It was during the British period that education was given emphasis for the Indians. Psychology was a stream that was embedded in Philosophy. Since there was a lot of western influence on the psychologists in India, they became more western in their training and orientation.

In India, however the roots of psychology can be traced back to the vast philosophical and religious literature: namely, Vedic and Epic literature.  In particular, Vedas, Yoga Sutras, Bhagavad Gita are the Indian sources for analysing various aspects of man's behaviour and mind.  It was around that this time that Sri Aurobindo made significant contribution to psychology from the Indian tradition. Psychology was an important part of his voluminous writings. With all these influences and the basic emphasis on education: Psychology as a subject gained a lot of momentum.

Psychology was first introduced in Calcutta University in the Department of Philosophy in the year1916.The first generation of psychologists after independence were people from the background of Philosophy. Separate Psychology Departments were largely started between1940-1960. Brojendra Nath Seal drafted the first syllabus for Experimental Psychology a laboratory for demonstration purpose in 1905.Eleven years later this was upgraded as the first Psychology Department known as the 'The Department of Experimental Psychology'. Mr. Narendra Nath Sengupta was a student of William Wundt and was the first person who chaired the department. Around the same time attempts were made by psychologists to make experimental psychology and psychometric distinctive features of psychology curricula and this process continues even today. Due to this in India Psychology acquired the status of being a science along with biological sciences, faster than the status it has got in the west.

The Indian Psychological association was founded in 1924 and the Indian Journal of Psychology appeared a year later.  During this time another significant person was Girendra Shekar Bose, who was inclined towards Psycho analysis and started the Indian Psychoanalytic Society. He was the first person to be awarded a PhD from an Indian University (i.e. Calcutta).He established the Lumbi Park Mental Health Hospital in Calcutta in 1940 and in 1947 brought out the journal 'Samiksha'.The department also started an applied psychology wing in 1938 when Jung, Meyers and Spearman were invited to the Silver Jubilee session on the Indian Science Congress.

Other departments of Psychology were soon established in Mysore and Patna. In 1924 down south, Mr. M.V.Goplswamy was heading the department in Mysore and he was trained in Psychological assessments. In 1946 Psychology was started in university of Patna under two separate wings Experimental Psychology and Department of Applied Psychology.

In 1956, The University Grants Commission was set-up , its responsibility was to provide funds to various universities to start Psychology Departments. Due to this there were 32 departments in Psychology by 1960(this has however increased now).Certain centres also provided advanced studies in Psychology. Soon another changing trend was that psychology was being offered in colleges offering Engineering, Agriculture and in management colleges. A lot of other centres such as NCERT,NIPCCD etc. started applied research in different fields of Psychology.

Several streams are present in Psychology historically we can see how some of them have developed. According to UGC report in 1968, 19 universities offered a course in Clinical Psychology at the Masters level(now a lot more are present). At that time training for Clinical Psychologists was provided in three major centres such as All India Institute of Mental Health in Bangalore (now NIMHANS), Hospital for Mental Disease, Ranchi and Mental Hospital in Calcutta. Around this time Clinical Psychologists also organised an all India Association of their own, and its first convention was held in October 1969, at the All India Institute of Mental Health Bangalore. With regard to Education Psychology, the first college of education was had been established in Madras more than 100years ago. The first time Education Psychology was introduced at the MA level as a paper was in 1961 in the University of Calcutta.

Currently there are about 15000 psychologists in India. Several departments in India are offering it as a subject.The subject and its significance has changed remarkably over the years. A few examples of universities offering Post Graduation and clinical Training have been explained below.

History of Bangalore University for Post-Graduation in Psychology

In Bangalore University in 1974 two specializations emerged one in Clinical Psychology and the other in Industrial Psychology. In 1994 the department had a third specialization called Child Guidance Clinic and it shifted to the Faculty of Science. In the year 2000 an M.Sc. in Psychological Counselling and two specializations in Educational Counselling and Human Resource Management was started. In 2003 the University started offering M.Sc. in Psychology in affiliated colleges apart from the university. In 2006 the department of Psychology at Bangalore University, moved to an independent well designed building.

History of Clinical Psychology in NIMHANS, the department was started in the year 1954 as the department of Psychology and Human Relations. It is one of the oldest and largest departments in NIMHANS. It is involved in clinical services, human resource Development and research activities. The first training programme was started in 1955 as Diploma in Medical Psychology and the first PhD was started in 1967.Most students were/are trained in Behaviour Therapy ,Rehabilitation, De-addiction ,Adult and Child Psychiatry.

As a subject whatever has been the various influences in Psychology weather religion or Philosophy, it now stands its ground. It has made its way into most universities and is also offered as a subject in high school.

References:

Dalai, A. K. (2011). A journey back to the roots: Psychology in India.Foundations of Indian Psychology Volume 1: Theories and Concepts, 27.

Jain, A. K. (2005). Psychology in India. The Psychologist, 18(4), 206-208.

Misra, G., & Paranjpe, E. A. C. (2012). Psychology in modern India. InEncyclopedia of the history of psychological theories (pp. 881-892). Springer US.

Singh, A. K. (1991). The comprehensive history of psychology. Motilal Banarsidass Publ..

http://www.nimhans.kar.nic.in/mhsp/default.htm

http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/images/Souvenir-Internet1.pdf

NATIONAL SEMINAR ON PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE 2001 October 22, 23, 24 KOLLAM Golden Jubilee Celebrations of Fatima Mata National College, Kollam

www.bangaloreuniversity.ac.in