History of Mechanical Engineering

 

1)      Abstract

Mechanical Engineering is probably the forerunner of many branches of Engineering. The History of Machines embraces a very broad period of the history of mankind, and can be studied from many perspectives. The seeding of Mechanical engineering started at ancient time and gradually progressed through the medieval time with the mankind. At different points of time, many people contributed a lot (say Archimedes, Newton, Arabs, Chinese etc.) and it grew very fast. Industrial revolution started at many places of the world which made the progress faster. Now Mechanical engineering is a fully developed science which handles enormous quantity of knowledge and machinery to make the life safe and comfortable.

 

2) Mechanical Engineering in ancient time

 

Many studies reveal that the evolution of Mechanical engineering started in China much before than in Europe till 16^th century. Extremely, ancient documents like the “Kao Gong Ji” (“Book of Diverse Arts”, 770-221 BC), reveal a concern for the development of science in all its forms: Astronomy, Biology, Mathematics, Physics and Engineering. Numerous written examples followed this work; compendiums on war machines, agricultural and hydraulic machines, textile machinery, clocks and automations follow one another through countless pages of diagrams and explanations; which dates from 2600-1100 BC and Su Song’s astronomical clock built in 1089, which, with its more than four hundred parts was undoubtedly a technological wonder.

 

Applications of Mechanical Engineering is evident in ancient and medieval period throughout the mankind. Many discoveries and works of Archimedes ( 287 BC – 212 BC ) have contributed  a lot to Mechanical engineering field. Widely known Archimedes principle was a turning point in the engineering field. He developed a screw mechanism to pump leaked water from the ship and the same principle is used in the screw pump, now a days. The claw of Archimedes also known as the ship shaker was an engineering marvel.  The claw consisted of a crane-like arm from which a large metal grappling hook was suspended. When the claw was dropped onto an attacking ship the arm would swing upwards, lifting the ship out of the water and possibly sinking it. Modern days experiments proved that it can be a reality. Focusing of sun light using mirrors to burn enemy ships was another invention by him.  In 2005 a number of Massachusetts Institute of Technology students conducted the experiment and proved that this is possible under certain conditions. He designed some pulley system to help sailors to lift heavy items which was otherwise very difficult to move.

Hero (or Heron ) of Alexandria (BC 10 – 70 AD)was an ancient Egyptian mathematician and  engineer who contributed a lot to the engineering field. He is considered as the greatest experimenter of antiquity. He is the inventor of first recorded steam engine. The first vending machine also is one of his many constructions.

3) Mechanical Engineering in Medieval time

During the years from 7th to 15th century, the era called the Islamic Golden Age, there were remarkable contributions from Muslim inventors in the field of Mechanical technology. Islam spread to the confines of the known world during the Middle Ages and Arabic became the vehicle of culture in its area of influence. The “House of Wisdom”, founded in Baghdad (9th C), contributes to the apparition of the book entitled “Ingenious Devices” written by the three Banu Musa brothers, whose pages contain the diagrams of one hundred machines and mechanisms. Some machines were copies of those produced by Hero and Philo but many others were improvements of these or new models.

 

Al Jazari (1136– 1206) the Muslim polymath, in his “Book of knowledge of ingenious Mechanical devices” in 1206 discussed 100 Mechanical devices along with instructions on how to construct them.  These include  fountains, clocks, water wheels and automatons with a precision of detail in both drawings and explanations that had been unknown up to that time. His machines reveal an increase in complexity that turned out to be not only useful but also of spectacular appearance, as was the case of the elephant clock that combines Mechanical engineering and design in equal parts.

 

The Re-birth of Western Europe in the14th, 15th and 16th centuries marked a stage of renewed activity and vitality on a level of arts, sciences and literature, as it was sought to leave behind the stagnation of the Middle Ages. Unlike what happened in the Middle Ages, the opening up of Renaissance society paved the way to the spread of machines. The 15th century can be taken as the high period of machine development, with celebrities like Leonardo da Vinci and Francesco Di Giorgio whose success was partly due to an environment that was open to their creativity and new ideas. Parallel to this, an interest in the theoretical aspects of machines led to a recovery of the knowledge of Antiquity with the study of authors from the Greek and Roman culture.

 

The publication of knowledge in the form of treatises began at the end of the 15th century. A first line of activity was the study of machine mechanics as an application of physics, by well-known figures such as Guidobaldo del Monte and Galileo Galilei. The second line consisted of a development towards a discipline in the shape of a rational collection of machines, outstanding of which were the machine collections of the aforementioned Francesco Di Giorgio and Agostino Ramelli

The Machine Renaissance, from Italy, spread throughout Western Europe from the second half of the 15th century with outstanding works such as Georgius Agricola’s “De Re Metallica” and Jacobus Strada’s “Kunstliche Abris allerhand Wasser” .

 

The printing press was a decisive factor in the dissemination of these treatises. Not only the text but also the accompanying illustrations attained a quality hitherto unknown in the previous books on machines that had been painstakingly copied by scribes. Although some significant treatises have survived to the present in the form of manuscripts, most authors published printed books whose readers no longer needed to belong to the privileged classes. Machine knowledge became popular and spread on a qualitatively different scale from previous periods.

 

Important breakthroughs in the foundations of Mechanical engineering occurred in England during the 17th century when Sir Isaac Newton both formulated the three Newton's Laws of Motion and developed Calculus, the mathematical basis of physics. Newton was reluctant to publish his methods and laws for years, but he was finally persuaded to do so by his colleagues much to the benefit of all mankind. German mathematician and philosopher, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 – 1716) is also credited with creating Calculus during the same time frame.

4) Mechanical Engineering during Industrial revolution

This period in history arose after the accumulation of knowledge from preceding eras and due to the coming together of a series of factors that resulted in a period of continuous advancement and progress that led to a change of focus, both social and engineering. The construction of the steam engine by J. Watt (1736-1819) was a turning point, but on a Mechanical level maybe establishing the search for automation in every field was more important. The machines began to replace people as a result of the new technologies that were being discovered in agriculture, mining or textile industry. A fine example of this generalized progress came about in the sphere of textile engineering, where developments arose in every field (spinning, weaving and sewing, by the men like Arkwright, Hargreaves and Crompton). The industrial evolution was continuous and in very few years all industries that were unable to move forward with technology, became obsolete.

Actually the industrial revolution did not spread and appear everywhere at the same speed. For example, while England was the pioneer in introducing mechanized and automated industries,  neighboring  France was caught up in a social conflict that set it aside from this type of progress.

 

During the early 19th century in England, Germany and Scotland, the development of machine tools led Mechanical engineering to develop as a separate field within engineering, providing manufacturing machines and the engines to power them. The first British professional society of Mechanical engineers was formed in 1847, Institution of Mechanical Engineers. On the European continent, Johann Von Zimmermann (1820–1901) founded the first factory for grinding machines in Germany in 1848.

In the United States, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) was formed in 1880, becoming the third such professional engineering society, after the American Society of Civil Engineers (1852) and the American Institute of Mining Engineers (1871). The first schools in the United States to offer an engineering education were the United States Military Academy in 1817, an institution now known as Norwich University in 1819, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1825. Education in Mechanical engineering has historically been based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science.

5) Conclusion

Comparing the “History of Mankind” with the “History of Machines” reveals a parallel evolution throughout the history. Technical progress has led man to use his imagination and resources not only for his own benefit but also as a way of providing help to the whole mankind. This work has always been done jointly and under the considerable influence of the scientific and political environment of the time. Perhaps the most appropriate example of this type of development is the Industrial Revolution, which, as we have seen, gave way to automated industries and the replacement of men by machines. A “History of Machines” which is also the history of Mechanical engineering will never be complete, but this review will help to understand how the minds of “Mechanical engineers” gradually evolved and changed, adapting to their era while looking to a “beyond” that led them to discover new and improved machines and mechanisms that would become a new step on an endless flight of stairs.

 

6) References

 

a)      http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Wisdom

b)      The evolution and development of Mechanical Engineering  through large cultural areas INVE_MEM_2008_58272.pdf

c)      Wikipedia – Mechanical Engineering

d)     en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria

 

Development of Mathematics in India

Development of Mathematics in India

Sameena Tarannum, Reg. no. 1345302, Research Scholar, Christ University

A Philosopher and Mathematician René Descartes (1596-1650) said "Mathematics is a more powerful instrument of knowledge than any other that has been bequeathed to us by human agency."

Mathematics is generally presented 'ready-made' to students with procedures, methods and applications in systematic and logical order. However, like any other academic subject, Mathematics also has a history which is rich in astonishing inventions and breakthroughs. This history gives a narrative and human context which adds colour and context to the discipline.  

Starting from the representation of numbers, through the methods of arriving at the solutions of unknown equations, to the expansion of classy techniques in managing the infinite and the infinitesimals, there has been an extensive variation in the choice of approaching, visualizing and understanding the problems and solutions amongst the Mathematicians.

The aim of this essay is to present a critical overview of Mathematics education in higher education level in India which typically refers to Mathematics taught at the undergraduate and post-graduate levels and would also cover research Mathematics. Only a tiny fraction of the Indian population (1.2 billion strong) enters higher education and is expanding rapidly over a last decade. India is therefore faced with the triangle of quality, quantity and equality.

 Mathematics in India has a very extended and consecrated history. Sulbasutras, the oldest existing texts (prior to 800 BCE) clearly state and make use of the so-called Pythagorean theorem. By the time of Aryabhata (c. 499 CE), the Indian Mathematicians were fully acquainted with most of the Mathematics that we currently teach at the elementary level in school. Starting with Aryabhata in the 5th century and extending up to Narayana Pandita of the 14th century, the Indian Mathematicians have blazed a trial in the study of several branches of Mathematics that include obtaining recurrence relation for the construction of sine table, finding solutions to unknown equations.

In the valley of the Indus river of India, the world's oldest civilization had developed its own system of Mathematics. The Vedic ShulbaSutras show that the earliest geometrical and Mathematical inquiries amongst the Indians arose from certain requirements of their religious rituals. Although Vedic mathematicians are known primarily for their computational genius in Arithmetic and Algebra, the basis and inspiration for the whole of Indian Mathematics is geometry. The beginnings of algebra can be traced to the constructional geometry of the Vedic priests, which are preserved in the ShulbaSutras.

India has the third largest higher education system in the world (after China and the USA) suggests that there is a great deal of Mathematics around as well. India is also home to some institutions where world class research in Mathematics is carried out. A sturdy group of Indian Mathematicians have been contributing to the growth of many areas of Mathematics. The legendary genius Srinivasa Ramanujan has inspired and stimulated generations of young Indians towards taking up Mathematics as a calling.

From twentieth century, Mathematical Sciences is growing exponentially. In India, the growth of Mathematical Sciences has not been less spectacular. In the first three decades of twentieth century, only one university, namely, Calcutta University was producing PhD theses and today about a hundred of universities are producing PhDs in Mathematics. In fact, during the first twenty five years of its existence, IIT Kanpur has produced about three times the number of these produced by the entire country in the first five decades of this century.

As mentioned, the first set of theses came from Calcultta University and then followed by Madras University and this had to do great deal with the founding in the Indian Mathematical Society in 1907 which had its headquarters in Madras. However, solemn research started in the year 1927. In this period, we had Srinivas Ramanujan from Madras University who contributed a lot to the world as a well-known Mathematician. 

The credit for starting research in North India goes to Ganesh Prasad who brought some inspiration for it from Calcutta University where he had served as Professor of Applied Mathematics during 1914-1917. He then continued his teaching in Benaras Hindu University from 1917 to 1923 and gave new crescendos to research and founded Benaras Mathematical Society which was renamed to Bharat Ganit Parishad.  Bombay University was started at the same time as Calcutta and Madras universities but it produced its first PhD thesis in Mathematics in the year 1942. 

The Indian Statistical Institute also contributed to the development of Operations Research in India by Prof. Mahalanobis. Two other centres Defence Science Organisation and Delhi University laid research in the same field and this led to the founding of the Operations Research Society of India. Research in Applied Mathematics developed greatly due to the starting of five Indian Institutes of Technology, the strengthening of Mathematics departments in regional colleges of engineering and the setting up of the Department of Applied Mathematics in Indian Institute of Science at Bangalore.

The most prestigious school of Mathematics is at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Bombay. During more than four decades of its existence, this school has done tremendous work of international standards in many areas of pure Mathematics.

All these universities have contributed immensely and these have laid a foundation to the development of Mathematics in all the universities in India.

 

References:

[1] J. N. Kapur, "Development of Mathematical Sciences in India during the twentieth century," International Journal of History of Science, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 389-407, 1992.

[2] M. McCartney, "History of Mathematics in higher education curriculum," Mathematical Sciences HE curriculum Innovation Project, 2012.

Computer Science Education - a Historical Perspective by Balaji V (1345001)

Computer Science Education – a Historical Perspective

Introduction

The electronic computer was developed in 1940s, and has changed in many ways the functioning of the world. It is classified as one of the top ten greatest inventions of mankind. Today, we cannot even think to live without a computer in its traditional form or as a handheld device.

The history of computers in education has been characterized as an “accidental revolution” or “unthinking man and his thinking machines”. The computer has changed the saying that “necessity is the mother of invention” to “in a computer world, invention is the mother of necessity”. Some of the most provocative and inspiring ideas in the history of education have been created by the creators of the computer science field [6].

Prof. V Rajaraman, the renowned Indian author of many programming languages text books, in his article on “Computer Science Education in India” [1], highlights the goals of an education program in Computer Science, with the following statements:

·         To fulfil the manpower needs in the field of Computer Science to ensure the Country’s economic advancement.

·         To popularize the use of Computers in engineering design for applications like, design of Civil Structures, Electrical Machines and Chemical Plants. This will accelerate the development of the design process and end up in improved productivity.

·         To become self-reliant in Software Development, which demands intellectual labour and India is abundant in this factor.

·         To create the manpower for Designing, Manufacturing and Maintaining Computer Systems.

·         To facilitate the use of Computers in Research & Development in India.

·         To develop special continuing Education Programs for Managers, Engineers, Scientists, Administrators and General Public to learn the potentials of Computers and facilitate them to use the same as they had had their formal education in the pre-computer era.

He has provided indicative syllabi for many of these courses and concluded this article mentioning that the potential of the Computer Science field be utilized in the rapid industrial development of the country and in achieving our social goals also.

This essay discusses the applications of Computers, the impact of Computers in the field of Education and how the penetration of computers into institutions happened in the chronological order.

Computer’s entry into India

India bought its first computer in 1956 for a high sum of Rs. 10 lakh. Named HEC-2M, it was installed at Calcutta’s Indian Statistical Institute, where India’s weather forecasting model, based on statistical analysis of meteorological data, was developed. The same machine was used to design the next generation of computers, including India's first indigenous computer, the ‘TIFRAC’ (or Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Automatic Computer), in 1962 [7].

By world standards, India is behind many countries in the field of Education. Central and state governments make consistent efforts to raise the literacy rate. The main obstacles are the huge population and the unavailability of good, trained teachers to reach out to this population. Computing technology comes handy to solve these kinds of problems.

Need: The Scientific Information Explosion

We are experiencing a scientific information explosion, which has not been sensed in the other disciplines. Today, scientists and engineers use computers to access the rapidly growing data bases that store numbers, words, maps, chemical and physical structures and they search them millions of times a year. The base of scientific knowledge today is huge. It is estimated that it would take 22 centuries to read the annual biomedical research literature or seven centuries to read a year’s chemical literature [2].

An unmanned Soviet satellite, Sputnik was launched on October 4^th 1957 in the orbit around the Earth, which provided scientists with valuable information. The propagation of its radio signals gave information about the ionosphere and the density of the upper atmosphere. More such information stirred national interest in educational reforms and thus began the “golden age” of education. Major national efforts were made to reform education [6].

Fresh modes of communications such as radio, film, television and computers created an information-rich society. Schools have to transform into knowledge centers and compete for student attention. Additionally, the new emerging educational technologies were to become an important catalyst for rethinking education. The rethinking started some time in 1960s though the inventions in Computers and Computing had started in 1940s.

Computers in Education

At Dartmouth, USA, in 1963, John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz transformed the role of computers in education from primarily a research activity to an academic one [6]. In the same year, at Stanford, Patrick Suppes and Richard Atkinson established a program of research and development on computer–assisted instruction in mathematics and reading. They sought to create a new system to free the students from group–paced instruction and use individualized, instructional strategies with feedback. These programs facilitate students to take an active role in the learning process and Mastery was obtained through drill–and–practice.

Computer–aided Education this way proceeded to the MIT – Massachusetts Institute of Technology, University of Michigan, Carnegie Mellon University and other well-known institutions. The penetration of computers into Education as an aid has been facilitated by many reputed Indian institutions which are discussed below.

Role of the IITs:

The Indian Institutes of Technology at various locations in the country have been the pioneer to bring in Computer Science in to the formal education stream in India. They offer both graduate and post graduate courses in Computer Science & Engineering, and facilitate active research through MS, PhD and Post-Doctoral programs. Following are the specifics of each of the institutes.

1.   Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur

This was the first Institute in the country to start Computer Science education in August 1963 on an IBM 1620 system [4]. The department continues to lead the nation in terms of excellence in research and teaching in Computer Science and Engineering.

2.   IIT Bombay

The first computing activity in IIT Bombay started with the arrival of the Minsk II computer in 1967, which had the following configuration: It used 2^nd generation discrete transistor based circuitry, with I/O units as paper tape input-output, and off-line printers. The Computer Center was setup by a team spearheaded by Prof. J.R. Isaac. The Department of Computer Science and Engineering was officially formed in 1982. Active research areas of the department are:

ü  Artificial Intelligence and Natural Language Processing

ü  Computer Networks – Performance modelling

ü  Computer Graphics, Computer Vision and Image Understanding

3.   IISC Bangalore

The Department of Computer Science and Automation (CSA) is a pioneering academic centre for higher education, research, and innovation in computer science, which was created in 1969 and was initially called the School of Automation. The department states its vision as “To enable India’s excellence in the world of computer science and automation”. The “Supercomputer Education and Research Centre (SERC)” functioning at IISc conducts research in the following domains:

      Theoretical Computer Science

      Computer Systems

      Intelligent Systems

4.   Department of Computer Science and Engineering, IIT Madras

The Department was started in 1973 with the acquisition of an IBM 370 Mainframe Computer, the then most powerful computer in India. The courses offered then were, M.Tech, M.S and PhD and the B.Tech degree programme was started in the year 1983. The student strength of the department has now grown to about 400, with 50 full-time engineers working on R&D projects. Vision of the department is stated as “Global Excellence and Local Relevance in research, teaching, and technology development”.

5.   IIT Delhi

The department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi started Computer Technology as a course in 1976, which was even before the establishment of Computer Science & Engineering department. Courses offered were PhD, M.S. (Research) and M.Tech. The later established department of Computer Science and Engineering is now renowned for cutting edge research and for imparting state of the art education to the students of B.Tech, M.Tech, M.S. (Research) and PhD.

6.   IIT Kharagpur

The Department of Computer Science & Engineering was initiated in the year 1980 and it has played a pivotal role in developing and deploying the technology for one of the largest telemedicine networks in India. Apart from the graduate and post graduate programs, the Department has been engaged with considerable research work in

Ø  Medical Imaging, Digital image processing, Medical Informatics and Multimedia Databases

Ø  Assistive learning for the physically challenged

Ø  Cryptography and information security

Ø  Technology for VLSI CAD

Ø  Software Engineering

Pune University

The Department of Computer Science of Pune University is one of the earliest CS Departments started in Indian Universities. When computer science was little known and the word IT did not exist, the department started a one–year programme [B.Sc. (Applied) degree in Computer Science] in 1980. Other programs include, M.C.A. in 1983, the M.Tech. in 1985 and M.Sc. Computer Science in 1986.

University of Delhi

In the year 1981, University of Delhi with an objective of imparting quality education in the field of Computer Science, established its department of Computer Science. The Department started the three year MCA program in 1982, which was one of the first in India. Following are the other courses offered by the department:

§  M.Sc. Computer Science

§  Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)

§  B.Tech. Computer Science and B.Sc. (H) Computer Science through its constituent colleges.

University of Mysore

In the year 1986, the University of Mysore with the support of DRDO, Ministry of Defence, Government of India, started the department with a Post Graduate programme in Computer Science (M.Sc.) mainly to cater to the demands of good software engineering in DRDO labs all over the country [8]. The Department of Studies in Computer Science was formed in the year 1991 and subsequently, MCA was started in 1992.

Bangalore University

The Department of Computer Science & Applications was established in the year 1986. It started with a P.G Diploma in Computer Science followed by MCA program in 1989 and M.Sc Course in 2006.

Computer Science in School Education

CBSE, the Central Board of Secondary Education, India, has included Computer Science in its Curriculum 2005, for students of XI and XII standards. Earlier in March 2004, the board’s proposal for “Work Education in Schools” included “Computer Applications” as an elective for class VI–XII[3]. Many state governments[5] have also incorporated similar changes in their secondary and higher secondary curriculum for the inclusion of many flavours of this subject like, Computer Science, Informatics Practices and Multimedia and Web Technology.

The Department of School Education & Literacy under the ministry of HRD, Government of India has framed “The Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Schools” Scheme in December, 2004 to provide opportunities to secondary school students. This is to mainly build the necessary skills in students and make them learn through the process of computer aided learning (CAL).  The Scheme provides support to States/Union Territories to establish computer labs on sustainable basis.  It also aims to set up smart schools in KendriyaVidyalayas and NavodayaVidyalayas.

CSI

Computer Society of India is the first and largest body of computer professionals in India. A group of computer professionals started it on 6^th March 1965 and has now grown to be the national body representing computer professionals. Across India, it has 71 chapters, 418 student branches, and more than 90,000 members [9].

Summary & Conclusion

The information and data provided in this write–up though not exhaustive, is expected to serve the reader as a ready reckoner into the topic of “permeation of Computers in to Education in the Indian subcontinent”. It starts with the very basic history of invention of computers, describes their importance to and applications in human life, and discusses how various educational institutions explored the opportunities to include Computer Science into their curriculum and operations. It also examines in short the impact of Computers in school education and described one popular professional organization, CSI and its activities.

References:

1.      The Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers, “Computer Education in India, Past, Present and Future”, Edited by Dr. Utpal K. Banerjee, Concept Publishing Company, 1996.

2.      Bernier, C. L., “Reading Overload and Cogency”, Information Processing and Management, 14, (1978), pp. 445-452.

3.      Work Education in Schools, published by CBSE (Central Board of Secondary Education), March 2004.

4.      Websites of CBSE, IIT Delhi, IIT Madras, IIT Kanpur, IIT Kharagpur, IIT Bombay and IISC, Bangalore. [http://cbse.nic.in/, http://www.iitd.ac.in/, http://www.iitm.ac.in/, http://www.iitk.ac.in/, http://www.iitkgp.ac.in/, https://www.iitb.ac.in/, http://www.iisc.ernet.in/]

5.      Official Website of School Education, Govt. Of Uttarakhand.

6.      “Computers in Education: A Brief History”, THE Journal, Date: 06/01/1997.

7.      Makarand Bhonsle, “Computer Technology in India”, web resource accessed on 30^th March 2014:  http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/Radioserials/Computer Technology in India.pdf.

8.      Website of Mysore University (Department of Computer Science): http://www.uni-mysore.ac.in/computer-science/

9.      Website of Computer Society of India, CSI : http://www.csi-india.org/. Kanyakumari Chapter : http://csi-cape.org/rsc/conference.php.

History of Management Education

Jesu Raju Thomas

PhD-Management

Reg No:1340001

History of Management Education:

History of Management is ageless. Philosophy of Management is standard and systematic operation procedure used in business for profit making. Business may not be act of making profit only because NGOs are also involved in business but their act not related to making profit. NGOs are involved in raising funds and using funds for the stated purpose for the up-liftment of marginalised but they also in need of systematic management to deliver their services effectively. Management is a need of the hour in managing a small family to managing conglomerate businesses.  

The verb manage arrives from the Italian word maneggiare which means to handle especially tools. The word manage derives from the Latin word manus. Management has involved in every kind of activity whether it is a family event, sport event or managing Business. Complexity of such activity also increasing day by day so discipline of management continuingly searching for new solution for the problems. As a result it is continuously emerging from ages. The conceptualisation of management happened during 18^thand 19^th century. Industrial revolution in the 18^th and 19^th century resulted in many approaches to management. Before the Industrial revelation owners used to maintain their business so there was not much systematic recording of the transaction. Industrial revolution made the businesses to grow and ownership also changed from individual to shareholders, groups. To manage the business different hierarchy of managers are emerged to manage the operation of the business. This resulted in the development of formal training institutions for the managers. Many education institutions are started courses on Management.  

Management is a process of converting the resources to utility. Management involves the five major functions they are Planning, Directing, Organising, Staffing, Directing, Controlling. Management is the process of using human capital of an enterprise to contribute to the success of the enterprise or any institutions. 

The concept of management has existed for millennia. The concept of strengths and weakness of managers are used in 6^th Century BC by Chinese general Sun Tzu, The Art of War.

Arthashastra by Chanakya which was written around 3000 BC discuss about best practices of govern. The wealth of Nations by Adam Smith in 1776 explains about efficient organisation work by division of labour. 

During 19^th century many management theories are developed such as resource allocation, production and pricing. There was also development technical production such as standardization, quality control, cost accounting. In late 19^th century salaried managers were existed in large corporation. 

Scholars like tried to apply the principle of other streams such as psychology, production, sociology to management. The Harvard Business School offered first Master of Business Management degree in 1921.  End of the 20^th century business management became one of the specialised streams with separate branches namely Human resources Management, operation management, strategic management, Marketing, Financial management, information technology management. 

In the 21^st century management theory became part of major disciplines. Management concepts are used in NGOs, Government, and Educational institutions etc. 

The history of important first business schools are as follows

1819- ESCP Europe (Ecole Supérieure de Commerce de Paris) was founded in Paris, France world first business school (GmbH)

1855 - The Institut Supérieur de Commerce d'Anvers and the Institut Saint-Ignace;

1857 – The Budapest Business School was founded in the Austrian Empire. First business school in Central Europe. (School)

1871 – The Rouen Business School

1881 – The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania is the United States' first business school. (PENNSYLVANIA, 2014)

1898 – The University of St. Gallen Established  the first university in Switzerland teaching business and economics. One of the oldest French business schools.

1900 - The first graduate school of business in the United States, the Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth College.  (The Tuck School of Business, 2014)

1902 - The Birmingham Business School is the United Kingdom's first business school. (The independent, 2010)

1908 - Harvard Business School was founded at Harvard University. It was the first program in the world to offer the Master of Business Administration degree in 1921.

1909 - Charles H. Dyson School of Applied Economics and Management They founded undergraduate business program.

1946 – The Thunderbird School of Global Management, then called the American Institute for Foreign Trade, focused exclusively on global business.

1949 – The University of Pretoria in South Africa founded the oldest business school in Africa.

1949 - XLRI - India's oldest business management school is founded

1954 - The Faculty of Management Studies (FMS), University of Delhi is among one of the oldest business schools in India (Faculty of Management Studies University of Delhi, 2014)

1955 - The Institute of Business Administration, Karachi was the first business school to be established outside North America to offer an MBA degree

1991 – The IEDC-Bled School of Management was the first business school to offer an MBA program inEastern Europe

1994 – CEIBS (China Europe International Business School) was the first business school in China to have received funding from a foreign government, namely the European Commission.

Business schools are first established in Europe followed by America and Asia. XLRI and FMS are the old management institutions of India. 

The important people who contributed for the development of management theory are as follows

1856 – 1915:  Fredric Winslow Taylor (Father of Scientific Management)– Designing jobs which improved the industrial efficiency. He is the Author of principle of scientific management.

1864-1920: Max Weber – Management organisation and structure. He has developed Bureaucratic Theory of management

1880–1949: Elton Mayo- Hawthorne Studies. He was also Harvard Professor recommend that managers should become people oriented

1844 – 1924: Henry R. Towne laid emphasis on the need of study of management separately and to learn. He was the first to come up with a new social role for engineers and to understand the importance of management techniques for engineers.

The important management theories developed are Scientific Management by Frederick Taylor, Taylor’s Four Principles of Management, General Administrative Theory by Herial Fayol and Weber’s Ideal Bureaucracy.

Management study became very popular due to the need of the hour for all kind or organisation. Due to the globalisation and need of different level hierarchy in the large organisation created opportunities for the managers with knowledge and experience of management. At present there are many management related courses in different educational institutions.

 

References:

Authrstream. (n.d.). Retrieved March 31, 2014, from www.authrstream: http://www.authorstream.com/presentation/bhavin2750-1324264-the-development-of-management-theory/

Wikipedia. (2014, March 31). Retrieved March 31, 2014, from Wikipedia.org: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki.Business_school

 

History of Higher Education in Engineering

History of Higher Education in Engineering

Submitted by Kukatlapalli Pradeep Kumar – Research Scholar              Christ University April 2014

The Roots of Engineering Education

Engineering education is the process of imparting knowledge and values in connection with the professional practice of engineering. The roots of engineering education was found in a movement which emphasized on engineering science and quality in engineering education. This movement took place at the end of World War II. Later on, the practical exposure in engineering undergraduate programs was not perceived due to lack of focus on the same. To resolve the issues in the engineering education, early 1980’s researcher bodies and different organizations piloted many studies. They agreed upon the common results achieved, to deliver strong base theory knowledge in all engineering institutions. They also concluded upon the exposure towards the societal context and the interdisciplinary research for engineering education as one among the initiatives of
the studies.

Indian Perspective with respect to Quality

The official approval and accreditation process for technical education in the country on quality assurance started in the year 1985 with ISTE (Indian Society for Technical Education). As per the AICTE (All India council for Technical Education) India, technical education not only mean Engineering, but also Management, Architecture, Pharmacy, Computer Applications, Hotel Management and Catering Technology, and Applied Arts and Crafts. The professional society ISTE is a program unit of MHRD (Ministry of Human Resource and Development) India. In the year 1994 the NBA (National Board of Accreditation) was established by the All India council for Technical Education. NBA as an association conducted many awareness programs, training programs, workshops on the quality of engineering education. It also focused on evaluation process and methodologies to be followed by the technical universities. However, the IISc also contributed towards the accreditation system, in which it was named as “Manyatha”. This could not attract the professors in the technical education in spite of its distinct features, and it also did not make further proceedings and updates on the same [1]. It is because of the NBA and NAAC accreditation initiatives, technical institutions could able to improve on the quality aspects with respect to the curriculum, industry institution interaction, Research and Development etc.,

Product Based Model Education

As the trend in technology is more towards product based models, there is need felt for transformations in engineering education. The engineering activities followed in the industry differs from the class room teaching in many ways. The product modelling and simulation environments have to be installed and updated on regular basis. The main challenge lies behind contributing to the already existing work with slight or major modifications. There is a need for formulating new courses in the institutions for the product based model architectures. The virtual system laboratories also have to be established and the laboratory hours have to be scheduled. Knowledge representations and application tools are to be connected with the engineering systems. With the newer results in research, the quantitative and qualitative approaches can be applied in engineering domain as well. The quantitative methods are relevant where a hypothesis or a theory justifies the direction of the research. The qualitative methods are more towards personal interviews, conclusions drawn from observations, data collection and analysis of the field work/surveys. For the product development systems a best method can be applied with respect to the area of engineering[2]. The National System of Innovation (NSI) aimed at higher education in collaborating government sector, Industry and fourth pillar organizations. The Fourth pillar organizations are innovation-enabling and multiplier organizations such as incubators,innovation support centers, technology transfer centers, andtechnology demonstrators. The helix model and the triple helix paradigm also can impact the higher education system [3].

Interdisciplinary Approach and UTAUT

The interdisciplinary approach with respect to natural sciences, social sciences can optimize the higher education structure in the education systems engineering to address various research problems [4].Usage of audio visual means will have a positive impact on the university education. These resources also help in improving the efficiency of teaching among the faculty fraternity.Service learning contributed to the transformation in engineering education, focusing on the self-learning, and development of professional and interpersonal skills.
Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) is a research theory which is intended to illustrate about the adoption and rejection of technology by the users. This model aims at verification of UTAUT adequacy on the information technologies in pedagogical process of Engineering Higher Education [5].

Information Technology and Engineering Education

Usage of computers and information technology leads to positive results in the engineering higher education. It not only develops education in engineering, but also the product development environments in and around the universities with high performance methods, tools and systems. The artifact developments depends on the sophisticated infrastructure with simulated environments. So the product development and the education in engineering can act as the real integration of academic systems with the field practice [6]. The teaching, projects and problem solving aspects has to be merged in the engineering education for effective exposure on to the student community. The course models and product models can be integrated to form a new and unique approach in engineering higher education.

Conclusion: Current Scenario of Engineering Education India

As far as engineering education in India is concerned, a recent study says that there is 10.4 percent increase in the number of engineering graduates on yearly basis. This number is more than that of China, South Korea, the UK, and USA.A study said that about 30 percent of the fresh engineering graduates are unemployed because of lack of quality in education pursued. This leaves a question on quality of graduates coming out from universities and colleges. These consequences results unemployment or underemployment in the nation. The engineering institutions in India are good at undergraduate programs, however lack in progressing towards the post-graduate and research oriented programs. One of the reasons is, undergraduate students not opting for M.Tech and other technical related PG programs.

References

1. Prof. R. Natarajan former chairman AICTE, former director, IIT madras; “The origins and history of accreditation of technical education programs in India”, IEEE conference proceedings.       
2. JózsefGáti and GyulaKártyásÓbuda University, Budapest, Hungary; “New Challenges in Engineering Higher Education”IEEE conference proceedings.
3. Andre’ Hattingh, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa; “Higher Engineering Education in the 21st century” June 2003 IEEE conference proceedings.
4. Sun Shaorong, ZongLiyong University of Shanghai for Science and Technology. Shanghai, China; “Systems Engineering Methods in the Study of Higher education Structure Optimization” 2009.
5. Bertil P. Marques, Dep. Eng. Informática – ISEP, GILT- Graphics, Interaction and Learning Technologies Porto – PORTUGAL; “Applying the UTAUT model in Engineering Higher Education: Teacher's Technology Adoption”.
6. JózsefGáti and GyulaKártyás, Óbuda University Budapest, Hungary; “Computer System Support for Higher Education Programs in Engineering”, IEEE conference proceedings.