History of Higher Education in Engineering

History of Higher Education in Engineering

Submitted by Kukatlapalli Pradeep Kumar – Research Scholar              Christ University April 2014

The Roots of Engineering Education

Engineering education is the process of imparting knowledge and values in connection with the professional practice of engineering. The roots of engineering education was found in a movement which emphasized on engineering science and quality in engineering education. This movement took place at the end of World War II. Later on, the practical exposure in engineering undergraduate programs was not perceived due to lack of focus on the same. To resolve the issues in the engineering education, early 1980’s researcher bodies and different organizations piloted many studies. They agreed upon the common results achieved, to deliver strong base theory knowledge in all engineering institutions. They also concluded upon the exposure towards the societal context and the interdisciplinary research for engineering education as one among the initiatives of
the studies.

Indian Perspective with respect to Quality

The official approval and accreditation process for technical education in the country on quality assurance started in the year 1985 with ISTE (Indian Society for Technical Education). As per the AICTE (All India council for Technical Education) India, technical education not only mean Engineering, but also Management, Architecture, Pharmacy, Computer Applications, Hotel Management and Catering Technology, and Applied Arts and Crafts. The professional society ISTE is a program unit of MHRD (Ministry of Human Resource and Development) India. In the year 1994 the NBA (National Board of Accreditation) was established by the All India council for Technical Education. NBA as an association conducted many awareness programs, training programs, workshops on the quality of engineering education. It also focused on evaluation process and methodologies to be followed by the technical universities. However, the IISc also contributed towards the accreditation system, in which it was named as “Manyatha”. This could not attract the professors in the technical education in spite of its distinct features, and it also did not make further proceedings and updates on the same [1]. It is because of the NBA and NAAC accreditation initiatives, technical institutions could able to improve on the quality aspects with respect to the curriculum, industry institution interaction, Research and Development etc.,

Product Based Model Education

As the trend in technology is more towards product based models, there is need felt for transformations in engineering education. The engineering activities followed in the industry differs from the class room teaching in many ways. The product modelling and simulation environments have to be installed and updated on regular basis. The main challenge lies behind contributing to the already existing work with slight or major modifications. There is a need for formulating new courses in the institutions for the product based model architectures. The virtual system laboratories also have to be established and the laboratory hours have to be scheduled. Knowledge representations and application tools are to be connected with the engineering systems. With the newer results in research, the quantitative and qualitative approaches can be applied in engineering domain as well. The quantitative methods are relevant where a hypothesis or a theory justifies the direction of the research. The qualitative methods are more towards personal interviews, conclusions drawn from observations, data collection and analysis of the field work/surveys. For the product development systems a best method can be applied with respect to the area of engineering[2]. The National System of Innovation (NSI) aimed at higher education in collaborating government sector, Industry and fourth pillar organizations. The Fourth pillar organizations are innovation-enabling and multiplier organizations such as incubators,innovation support centers, technology transfer centers, andtechnology demonstrators. The helix model and the triple helix paradigm also can impact the higher education system [3].

Interdisciplinary Approach and UTAUT

The interdisciplinary approach with respect to natural sciences, social sciences can optimize the higher education structure in the education systems engineering to address various research problems [4].Usage of audio visual means will have a positive impact on the university education. These resources also help in improving the efficiency of teaching among the faculty fraternity.Service learning contributed to the transformation in engineering education, focusing on the self-learning, and development of professional and interpersonal skills.
Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) is a research theory which is intended to illustrate about the adoption and rejection of technology by the users. This model aims at verification of UTAUT adequacy on the information technologies in pedagogical process of Engineering Higher Education [5].

Information Technology and Engineering Education

Usage of computers and information technology leads to positive results in the engineering higher education. It not only develops education in engineering, but also the product development environments in and around the universities with high performance methods, tools and systems. The artifact developments depends on the sophisticated infrastructure with simulated environments. So the product development and the education in engineering can act as the real integration of academic systems with the field practice [6]. The teaching, projects and problem solving aspects has to be merged in the engineering education for effective exposure on to the student community. The course models and product models can be integrated to form a new and unique approach in engineering higher education.

Conclusion: Current Scenario of Engineering Education India

As far as engineering education in India is concerned, a recent study says that there is 10.4 percent increase in the number of engineering graduates on yearly basis. This number is more than that of China, South Korea, the UK, and USA.A study said that about 30 percent of the fresh engineering graduates are unemployed because of lack of quality in education pursued. This leaves a question on quality of graduates coming out from universities and colleges. These consequences results unemployment or underemployment in the nation. The engineering institutions in India are good at undergraduate programs, however lack in progressing towards the post-graduate and research oriented programs. One of the reasons is, undergraduate students not opting for M.Tech and other technical related PG programs.

References

1. Prof. R. Natarajan former chairman AICTE, former director, IIT madras; “The origins and history of accreditation of technical education programs in India”, IEEE conference proceedings.       
2. JózsefGáti and GyulaKártyásÓbuda University, Budapest, Hungary; “New Challenges in Engineering Higher Education”IEEE conference proceedings.
3. Andre’ Hattingh, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa; “Higher Engineering Education in the 21st century” June 2003 IEEE conference proceedings.
4. Sun Shaorong, ZongLiyong University of Shanghai for Science and Technology. Shanghai, China; “Systems Engineering Methods in the Study of Higher education Structure Optimization” 2009.
5. Bertil P. Marques, Dep. Eng. Informática – ISEP, GILT- Graphics, Interaction and Learning Technologies Porto – PORTUGAL; “Applying the UTAUT model in Engineering Higher Education: Teacher's Technology Adoption”.
6. JózsefGáti and GyulaKártyás, Óbuda University Budapest, Hungary; “Computer System Support for Higher Education Programs in Engineering”, IEEE conference proceedings.

History of commerce education

History of Commerce Education

Lakshmi J

1340102

Field of commerce and industry as a specialisation has become necessary due to the rapid growth of business. The discipline of commerce was first started by private institutions. When we check the history of commerce as a higher education is nearly 102 years old. In the beginning only book keeping was taught. And later on many private institutions started teaching book keeping and accountancy. For such an education, Madras became a pioneer state where it started in 1886. The Government of Madras laid the foundation of commerce education by setting-up commercial institute in Madras. Two other institutions were established during the next ten years (by 1896).  Government of India also started Commerce College at Calicut and Presidency College at Calcutta. In India Commerce education at University level made its first beginning in 1913 when Sydenham College of commerce and economics was established by Bombay, since then there has been steady increase in commerce courses and its related branches all over India, there is hardly any university or college which don’t have commerce department.

In the beginning of this century Calcutta Presidency College also introduced the teaching of commerce (1903). By about that time it was also introduced in Delhi. One more commercial institution was started in Bombay in 1912. In 1920's (1921-22) the first Fiscal Commission was set-up and this commission made certain important recommendations In the light of these recommendations some major improvements were vis­ible in various industrial fields especially in the field of iron and steel industry, sugar industry, tea industry, cotton industry and jute indus­try.

A very rapid growth of commercial educational institutions was observed during 1920-40. The Indian Institute of Bankers was estab­lished in 1926, the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India was established in 1934. Later on in 1944, Institute of Works and Cost Accountants of India was established. In 1955, the Federation of Insurance Institutes was established.

In the early part of 19th century commerce education and training programs were formally started through as vocational courses intended for meeting the requirements of different local cadres in business and industry as also in government department. Commerce courses were formally elevated to the level of undergraduate graduate and post graduate and by 1930 many universities and colleges in the country introduced B Com and M Com commerce training programs suitable for those seeking commerce course after 12 . After that a number of commercial institutes were established in the country during 1920-40, The Indian Institute of Bankers was established in 1926. The Institute of Chartered Accountants was established in 1934 The federation of insurance institutions was established in 1955, commerce courses proliferated in India at the school college and university level during this period. Commerce education is defined as practical training however unfortunately in India it is more of theoretical education rather than focusing on practical aspect of the education it happened due to lack of infrastructure facilities lack of trained . Main drawback of commerce education at college and university level is lack of dynamism and emphasis of theory than practical aspect lack of co-ordination between universities and professional bodies, lack of uniformity and standardization of course content, absence of clear cut objective before the student community , inadequate method of modern teaching, lack of practical experience to both teacher and student. Commerce teacher is Jack of all trade who is expected to teach all the subjects. In earlier days commerce programs were linked to clerical and accounting personnel only. However due to demand and after economic liberalisation in India things have started changing many institutes offering practical exposure in the field of accounting banking taxation payroll e commerce have emerged successfully one of premier institute in India offering such type of practical training is The Institute of Professional Accountants Delhi – India engaged in enhancing the practical skills of students and making them employable with industry.

To cope with the increasing demand for the trained people to transact commercial and governmental jobs, it became essential to introduce the commerce education at school level.

To start with the teaching of short-hand and typing was intro­duced in Government schools and aided schools and afterwards the teaching of commerce was introduced in such schools. Now the com­merce education has been included in the school curriculum.

Chattapadhya (1987) stated that the objectives of commerce courses remained unclear till independence. After twelve years of independence the Indian National Government appointed the Special Committee for Commerce Education under the chairmanship of Dr. V.K.R.V. Rao, then Director of the Institute of economic Growth, Delhi in 1985. The committee emphasized mainly on three points so far as Commerce education is concerned. Firstly, Commerce courses of different Universities had to provide the infrastructure of professional education in Accountancy and cost accountancy etc. but also to pave the way for specialization in different disciplines included in the courses. Secondly, Commerce education imparted by the universities was not to be regarded as the competitor of professional courses, its role was complementary. Thirdly, commerce education and management education should be considered on discrete plans. From the Rao Committee’s recommendations, it has been revealed that no effort was made to professionalize the commerce education rather it was regarded as the facilitator of different professional courses. Most universities believed at that time that professional education conducted by the Indian Institute of Chartered Accountants of India and the Institutes of Cost and Works Accountants of India were equivalent to B. Com only, not M. Com. The special Committee for Commerce Education stressed that students should study post graduate course of commerce for further academic pursuits as well as for diversion into professional courses. That committee also emphasized that in M.Com course the students should be able to pursue research as well as to fill up the post of commerce teachers in different colleges and universities. Since then the commerce education has been remaining as a traditional education for which a separate branch named as Business education emerged.

Now, there is a great demand for office workers who can type readily and accurately, take and transcribe notes quickly and correctly, keep financial records and operate busi­ness machines effectively. In addition it has been discovered that type writing and other commercial subjects can make valuable contribu­tions to the general education of the students".In the new scheme of education (I.C. 10+2+3 pattern of educa­tion) sufficient attention has been paid to commerce education in Indian schools. In addition to shorthand and typing some more sub­jects that have been included for teaching in commerce are as follows:

(I) Book-keeping and Accountancy,

(II) Commercial mathematics,

(III) Sectarian practice,

(IV) Commercial English / Hindi,

(V) Commercial Law,

(VI) Industrial law,

(VII) Taxation,

(VIII) Income Tax,

(IX) Salesmanship,

(X) Applied economics,

(XI) Public relations, and

(XII) Advertising.

The teaching of Commerce subjects starts from XI class and in class XII the syllabus is quite advanced. Many a commercial subjects are also taught in vocational institutes.

At present commerce education is considered as good education because of the distinct advantages that a commerce student has over his counter-part in the arts faculty. It is believed that a commerce student not only achieves just training and perfection, but also a general professional intelligence.

Commerce as a Discipline- Global perspective.

·         1819 – The world's first business school, ESCP Europe was founded in Paris, France. It is the oldest business school in the world and now has campuses in Paris, London, Berlin, Madrid, and Torino.

·         1855 - The Institut Supérieur de Commerce d'Anvers (State funded) and the Institut Saint-Ignace - École Spéciale de Commerce et d'Industrie (Jesuits education) were founded in the same year in the city of Antwerp, Belgium. After almost 150 years of business education and rivalry between catholic and state education, the successors of both institutions have merged in 2003 to the University of Antwerp.

·         1857 – The Budapest Business School was founded in the Austrian Empire as the first business school in Central Europe. It is the oldest public business school in the world

·         1871 – The Rouen Business School recently merged with Reims Management School under the name of NEOMA Business School. Rouen Business School is one of the oldest French business school.

·         1881 – The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania is the United States' first business school.

·         1898 – The University of St. Gallen established the first university in Switzerland teaching business and economics.

·         1900 - The first graduate school of business in the United States, the Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth College, was founded. The school conferred the first advanced degree in business, specifically, a Master of Science in Commercial Sciences, the predecessor to the MBA.

·         1902 - The Birmingham Business School is the United Kingdom's first business school. Originally established as the School of Commerce was established in Birmingham, United Kingdom.

·         1906 – The Warsaw School of Economics (SGH) was established as the first university in Poland dedicated to teaching commerce and economics.

·         1908 - Harvard Business School was founded at Harvard University. It was the first program in the world to offer the Master of Business Administration degree.

·         1946 – The Thunderbird School of Global Management, then called the American Institute for Foreign Trade, was the first graduate management school focused exclusively on global business.

·         1949 – The University of Pretoria in South Africa founded the oldest business school in Africa. In January 2008 the Graduate School of Management was formally replaced by the Gordon Institute of Business Science.

·         1949 - XLRI - India's oldest business management school is founded.

·         1954 - The Faculty of Management Studies (FMS), University of Delhi is among one of the oldest business schools in India.

·         1955 - The Institute of Business Administration, Karachi was the first business school to be established outside North America to offer an MBA degree.

·         1991 – The IEDC-Bled School of Management was the first business school to offer an MBA program in Eastern Europe.

·         1994 – CEIBS (China Europe International Business School) was the first business school in China to have received funding from a foreign government, namely the European Commission.

 

Conclusion

Commerce education has gained a lot of importance currently due to the rapid growth in business and industry. Starting from just book keeping in early 1800’s currently the study focuses more on specialised areas.

 

 

References:

 Lecturer notes shared by Professor Neetu Patyal through Skype on 29/03/2014

  en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_school

 

History of Indian Psychology in Higher Education Timeline by Dolly Jose (Rework)

The History of Indian Psychology in Higher Education Timeline

By Dolly Jose

1.1 Introduction

The aim of this paper is to present the historical roots of Indian Educational Psychology through Timeline. History is subjective; for every piece of information there are countless bits of historical fact from different dimensions which are not completed here. The focus of this timeline is to present the facts which are more relevant to Higher education. The timeline includes main historical information from 1916 regarding the establishment of departments of psychology, universities, transition and developments, great personalities and their contributions, and the new beginnings in psychological field.  

1.2 Dawn of Psychology in India

Sinha (1990) describes Indian psychology, as a distinctive psychological tradition, rooted in Indian ethos and thought, including the variety of psychological practices that exist in the country. He adds that Indian models of psychology would have vast implications for health psychology, education, organizational management and human and social development. The roots of psychology in India can be traced back to religious and philosophical literature. However, from the time of British colonial era until last decade, the psychology has been dominated by the Western theories and concepts. In 1850s the British East India Company adopted a policy of finding only European style education within its territories in India. The aim of this policy was to produce a class of Indians with English thinking. To attain this goal, the college and university education was modelled after Cambridge and Oxford ( (Misra G. & Anand C. P, 2012). The applied education system has psychological influence and Indian intellectuals exposed to European thought and modern science. They followed the Western brands of psychology. When India began to be an independent country it has major expansion in Indian educational system too. Indian psychologists slowly started to recognise that they are led by European thoughts and theories. This enlightened insight was a search and wish for an indigenous psychology.  The historical development depicted by timeline in the next section.

1.3 Psychology in Higher Education -Time Line

1916 -The first psychology department and first psychology laboratory in India was established in 1916 under the leadership of Dr. N.N Sen Gupta (Dalal A. K & Misra A., 2010) at Calcutta University. He was a Hardward educated Indian psychologist, Philosopher and professor. He, along with Gunamudian Davi Boaz, is known as the founder of modern psychology in India.

 1922- In 1922 Dr. Girindra Shekar Bose, who succeeded Dr. N.N Sengupta at Calcutta University established the Indian Psychoanalytical Society, by his intimate contact and support of Sigmund Freud. It is affiliated to the international psychoanalytic Association (Jain, 2005) (Dalal, 2011). Girindra Shekar Bose has the appreciation as the first PhD scholar from Indian psychological field. He received his PhD from Calcutta on the ‘concept of repression’.

1923- In 1923, Sen Gupta as a leading proponent of the scientific nature of psychological research took effort to include psychology as distinct division of the Indian science congress. Thus psychology in India acquired the status of a science at an early age along with the discipline of science, which western psychology achieved after a long struggle (Dalal, 2011).

1924 – The second oldest Department of psychology established at the University of Mysore in 1924, headed by M. V Gopalaswamy.  The department was offering M.A Degree in psychology until 1998. From 1998 syllabus revision has took place and the degree offered as M.Sc in psychology (Dalal A. K & Misra A., 2010).

1925- The first Indian Psychological Association established by the constant effort of S.N Gupta (Jain, 2005).

1926- The Indian journal of psychology is founded and the first official founding editor was N.N Sen Gupta (Jain, 2005).

1929- In 1929, N.N Sen Gupta, along with Radhakamal Mukerjee published instruction to social psychology which named the first text covering the topic of social psychology published in India. In the same year when Sen Gupta appointed as the professor of Philosophy at the University of Lucknow, he introduced psychology into the philosophy curricula. It prepared the ground to establish Department of Experimental psychology at the University of Lucknow (Dalal, 2011).

1934- In 1934 Jadunath Sinha wrote a book on Indian theories of perception. It was a real effort for introducing Indian approach to psychology. At the beginning of modern psychology, when Western psychology emphasised sensation, and perception, Indian psychologists took out Indian theories to describe the phenomenon of perception.

1938-During the time of Silver jubilee session of the Indian Science Congress Jung, Meyers and Spearman were invited and it helped India to establish an applied psychology wing at Calcutta University. Through this development, Indian psychology assumed an applied stance from the outset (Robert B. Lawson, Jean E.G, Kristian M. B, 2008). (www.caluniv.ac.in).

1943- The Department of psychology emerged from the department of Philosophy in the University of Madras. The founder-head of the Department was DR. G. D Boaz.

1944- The establishment of "The Madras Psychology Society" took place in the year 1944. It was one of the major contribution in the field of academic and research by the Department of Psychology at university of Madras

1946- Psychology department instituted at Patna headed by H.P Maiti. The department provided opportunities for psychological research and services. Today Patna is famous for teaching, research and counselling services (Dalal, 2011).

1947- Girindra Shelter Bose published journal Samiksha. Patna guidance bureau inspired departments of psychology to establish similar bureaus or guidance in other states. Accordingly, UP psychological bureau is started for guidance and counselling by the headship of Sohan Lal. Psychological bureau at Bihar and the Parsi panchayat vocational guidance bureau at Bombay are some of these. They adapted intelligence and aptitude tests in Hindi and provided counselling services to the public (Dalal, 2011).

1949- Psychological research wing was established by India Government Defence Ministry with the aim of the inclusion of psychologists on research and selection boards ( (Jain, 2005).

1950- Department of psychology was established at University of Pune, named as experimental psychology. Prof. V. K Kothurkar who trained at Cambridge University was the founder and head of the department.  During 1980s the department renamed as department of psychology (www.unipune.ac.in).

1950- Centring at UNESCO, the ministry of education procured the services of Gardner Murphy to develop a research project to find out the causes of communal violence. Many Indian psychologists team up on this project and published a book named, In the minds of men. This joined project gave lot of interest for research for the scholars (Dalal, 2011).

1950s-1960s. In 1956, UGC was constituted and the availability of UGC funds resulted in the establishment of 32 psychology departments in universities of all over India by the end of 1960s (Dalal, 2011). According to the prominence in research area, most of the departments developed a distinct identity. Some of the examples for this phenomenon are Rural and Social Psychology (Allahabad), Test Construction (Mysore), Industrial Psychology (Osmania), and Measurement and Guidance (Patna). An interesting point is that these distinctive identities correspond to interest of the headed department personalities of each place. As a result when the department heads transferred the interest too reduced (Dalal, 2011). During these years, applied psychology extended its application to industrial psychology, organisational management, developing training programmes and job - productivity oriented work activities.  

1957- ‘The Madras psychology society ‘published the first Journal of Psychological Researches Published.

1961- Department of psychology got late entry in the University of Allahabad which was the 4^th oldest university in India, known as the ‘Oxford of the East’. Prof. Durganand Sinha was the first head of the department, one who trained at Cambridge University and Patna University (Adrian C.B & Johann L & William Van H., 2004).  (www.allduniv.ac.in).

1964- The department of psychology established at Delhi University as an independent department in 1964under the headship of Prof. H.C. Ganguli. However, the psychology at the master’s level was introduced in Delhi University in 1957 (www.du.ac.in).

1964- ‘The Madras psychology society’ published the Indian Journal of Applied Psychology.

1955- With the collaborative support of Erikson and McClelland, advanced training programmes in clinical psychology were introduced at All India Institute of mental Health (Today known as NIMHANS) Bangalore (Jain, 2005) .

1953- As a parallel study to western psychology, Indian psychologist Jadunath Sinha wrote a book on Cognition (Dalal, 2011).

1959-The department of Applied psychology was established in the university of Mumbai. The four streams of study in applied psychology are clinical, counselling, industrial and social.

1960s to 1970s, larger number of Indian scholars went to Britain, Canada and the united states for doctoral and post doctoral training. They applied Western theories and methods to understand and solve Indian social issues.

1961- The national council of Educational research and training reviewed all the psychological tests that had been prepared up to 1961 (Dalal, 2011).

1967- Though the applied psychology has beginning from 1931, the department of psychology in Calcutta officially established applied psychology in 1967 by Prof. S. N Roy (www.caluniv.ac.in).

1968-The Indian association of clinical psychologists was started in 1968 (Jain, 2005). On 12 December 1968 an autonomous organisation (Indian Council of Social Science) was established to provide valuable help to scholars from all over country through fellowships and project grants.

1970 - In the 1970s, the increased interest for research caused to come up many well organised research centres. Some of the centres are ANS institute of social studies (Patna), the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (New Delhi), The National Institute of Community Development (Hyderabad), National Council of Educational Research and Training (New Delhi), National Institute of Educational Policy and Administration (New Delhi), National Institute of Public co-operation and Child Development (New Delhi), National Institute of Health and Family Welfare (New Delhi), Indian Institute of Science (Bangalore), Academic Staff College (Bangalore) and Indian Statistical Institute (Calcutta). Together with this, the discovery of first statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) manual published by Norma H. Nie, Dale H. Bent, and C. Hadlai Hull’s made the research works in psychology an outstanding one.

1974- A directory made by compiling 503 psychological tests. The department of psychology started at Bangalore University (www.banagaloreuniversity.ac.in) and Bharathiar University (www.buc.edu.in).

1975- By the end of 1975, 51 of the 101 recognised universities were offered psychology.

1976- The department of psychology in Madras University developed the department by establishing criminology, applied psychology, organization psychology and counselling. The publication of journal of Indian psychology established (Dalal A. K & Misra A., 2010).

1970s-1980s- From the mid of 1970s up to 1980s, the discovery that sixty years of western psychology in India had not yielded any significant discoveries promoted a crisis in the discipline of psychology. The crisis took Indian psychologists to reflect back to the cultural roots and to seek out Indian identity in the field of psychology (Dalal, 2011).

1981- Jadunath Sinha wrote a book on Emotions and the will which contributed to the Indian psychology approach.

1995-Out of 219 recognised universities, 70 universities offered psychology (Jain, 2005)

1997- The first Asian conference Psychology was held in Singapore. It includes ten countries named Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Hong Kong, Taiwan, India, Austria, New Zealand, Korea and Singapore and together formed the Asia Oceanic Psychological Association (Robert B. Lawson, Jean E.G, Kristian M. B, 2008).

1998- The inaugural meeting of the international society of clinical psychologists was held in San Francisco, United States (Robert B. Lawson, Jean E.G, Kristian M. B, 2008).

2005- The Asian Applied psychology international regional conference was held in Bangkok, Thailand. In the same year, Asian psychological association was also held in Jakarta, Indonesia (Robert B. Lawson, Jean E.G, Kristian M. B, 2008). 

2009- Indian School Psychology Association established in 2009 to promote school psychology in India and Abroad by the guidance and headship of Prof. B. Mukhopadhyay (www.inspa.info)

Conclusion

In India, psychology has European roots. However, in the 21^st century, Indian psychology is capable to stand in its own foot with several universities, significant psychologists and outstanding organizations rooted in psychological interventions. Today, seventy universities in India have well-established psychology departments and institutes for both applied research and the provision of psychological services to the public (Robert B Lawson, Jean E. Graham, Kristin M. Baker, 2008). There is a remarkable shift from experimental work to the understanding of the psycho-cultural context using Indian traditional ideas in research, in building psychological theories, in developing psychological tests and in the application of psychology to all the disciplines of university studies and to the needs of nation.

Bibliography

Adrian C.B & Johann L & William Van H. (2004). Rediscovering the History of Psychology. Springer Science.

Dalal A. K & Misra A. (2010). The Core and Context of Indian Psychology. Psychology and Developing Societies, 22(1), 121-155. doi:10.1177/097133360902200105

Dalal, A. K. (2011). A Journey Back to the Roots: Psychology in India. (C. M, G. Misra, & S. Verma, Eds.) Foundations of Indian Psychology.

Jain, A. K. (2005, April). Psychology Toady. The Psychologist, 18(4), 206-208.

Misra G. & Anand C. P. (2012). Psychology in Modern India. Retrieved February 24, 2012, from http://www.springerlink.com.

Misra, A. K. (2010). The Core and Context of Indian Psychology. Psychology and Developing Societies, 22(1), 121-155. doi:10.1177/097133360902200105

Robert B Lawson, Jean E. Graham, Kristin M. Baker. (2008). A History of Psychology. New Delhi.

Robert B. Lawson, Jean E.G, Kristian M. B. (2008). A History of Psychology. New Delhi.

santrock_edpsych_ch01.pdf. (2014, March 27). Retrieved from www.mcgrawhill.ca/college/santrock.

Sinha. (1990). Wundtian Tradition and the Development of Scientific Psychology in India. The Creative Psychology, 1-6.

Websites

www.caluniv.ac.in.

www.unipune.ac.in.

www.unipune.ac.in.

www.allduniv.ac.in.

www.du.ac.in.

www.buc.edu.in.

www.banagaloreuniversity.ac.in.

www.inspa.info.

en.wikipedia. (2014).

 

 

 

HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY (NEW)

REKHA KUMARI (1345102) Chemistry

HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY

 

Ancient history of chemistry

The history of chemistry took long time to reach from ancient history to the present. An ancient civilization used technologies which dates back 1000 B.C.  

Establishment

Near the end of AD eighth century, an Arab alchemist, Abu Musa Jabir ibn hayyan known as a father of chemistry was used the word alchemy. “Alchemy” indicates to both the investigation of nature and an early philosophical and spiritual discipline to combine chemistry with metal. The ‘alchemy’ word derived from Arabic word Al-Kimya. Kimya sometimes indicated either by kemi or kemia, which means the land of black soil or the art of melting gold and silver. The protoscience of chemistry, alchemy, was unsuccessful to explain the nature of matter and its transformations. In 1661, Robert Boyle was made a clear differentiation between chemistry and alchemy [1].

Chemistry in the middle age

Alchemy originated from China. The alchemical writings appear in Chinese literature as early as the third century B.C. Chinese alchemy is closely related to Taoism, which is a system of philosophy and religion. But some told that it is originated from Egypt and filtered into china. But alchemy really started from the philosophy of Taoism. Ko Hung had written three goals of alchemy:

i.   The preparation of real gold from base metal.

ii. The preparation of gold from either natural or artificial but always genuine gold in an 
     edible form.

iii. The chemical preparation of other less efficacious medicines of immortality.

AL-Razi had written a book on alchemy, “Secret of secrets”, in that he divided mineral bodies into six classes:

1. Bodies, the metal.

2. Sprits, Sulphur, arsenic, Mercury, and salt ammoniac.

3. Stones, marcasite, magnesia etc.

4. Vitriols(known to pliny).

5. Boraces, borax, natron(soda), plant ash.

6. Salts, common salts, kali (potash), “Salts of eggs” (Saltpetre) used in china for fireworks.

Division of chemistry:  

Initially chemistry had divided into three different names according to location.

i.   Hindu

ii. China

iii. Europe

Hindu chemistry

 The Sanskrit Vedas mentioned five elements earth, water, air, ether and light( Aristotle said 384-322 BCE). The later Vedas mention gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead and tin. The Samkhya system of philosophy mentions five elements (tantmantras): sound, touch, colour, taste and odour, from which proceed five coarse elements (mahabhutas): ether, air, fire, water and earth, containing one to five of the subtle elements in the above order. The atomic theory occurs in the Vaisesika system, attributed to kanada and developed in Buddhist and Jainist works from the 2^nd century B.C.

Chemistry in china

In China, the idea of chemistry came from India early in the Christina era. In this country, Bronze appeared about 1300 B.C. Chinese people used cast iron extensively in the Han dynasty. They were used many objects which made up of cast iron.

Alchemy in Europe

In Europe the beginnings of chemistry were unknown during the middle Ages. It was written on the “divine art”. Large numbers of books on alchemy written in the period 1250-1500 A.D. [2].

Beginning of chemistry education:

Chemistry is the branch of natural science which deals with the composition, structure and properties of matter, and the changes which it undergoes. For example there are certain chemical changes like rusting of iron, burning of fuels, obtaining metals from their ores etc.

The slow progress of science among the ancients was due to the divorce of theory and practice. By this we commonly understand the pretended art of changing the base metals into gold.

History of chemistry in India

The Modern science appeared only in the latter part of the nineteenth century. By the mid nineteenth century European scientists started coming to India. A science college was established in Calcutta in 1814. The study of chemistry was first introduced in the presidency college of Calcutta in 1872, followed by post-graduate teaching in chemistry in 1886. Indians had made considerable progress in the field of chemistry during the ancient and medieval periods, having evidence of P. C. Ray’s two volumes on ‘History of Hindu chemistry’. Then so many scientists started taking keen interest in modern scientific research activities in the field of organic, inorganic etc. Thus P.C. Ray established the Bengal Chemical of Pharmaceutical Works Ltd. in Calcutta. The Alembic Chemical works was established by J.K.Gajjar in 1905 at Baroda. The Indian chemical industry was established and it continued to grow with a slow but a steady pace in the 20^th century [3].

Internal perspective on chemistry and training

The creation of a multi-disciplinary research community on science visualization is beginning to address the internal perspective with one important forum and driving force leads to training. A chemist who holds a Ph.D. or at least a master’s degree can understand the theory easily by his thinking ability. So training or research on a particular field is very necessary.   The chemistry – biology interface program of the national institute for general medical science has funded a landmark institution training program (T32). This training program integrates biology and chemistry through a common set of course requirements, a hands-on team based approach to laboratory training, a unique preceptor training.

The Nobel Prize in chemistry

The beginning of 20^th century was also a very important turning point in the history of chemistry. Therefore, a survey of the Nobel prizes in chemistry during this century will provide an analysis of important trends in the development of this branch of natural sciences, and this is the aim of a present essay.

Chemistry has a position in the centre of the sciences, bordering onto physics, with provides its theoretical foundation, on one side, and onto biology on the other. Living organisms being the most complex of all chemical systems. Thus, the fact that chemistry flourished during the beginning of the 20^th century is intimately connected with fundamental developments. There are some scientists who got the Nobel Prize for their invention:

1.  Joseph John Thomson: Electron (1906) in physics.

2.  Ernest Rutherford: Atomic model (1911)

3. Niels Bohr: The structure of atoms (1922)

4. Eduard Buchner got noble prize for Chemistry in the year 1907.

So, by doing experiments and recording the results, alchemists set the stage for modern chemistry.

 

New direction in chemistry

In 1912, Rutherford and Bohr had to change their viewpoint on the nature of matter. On the study of the whole nature of matter was not paid attention as much as on the atomic nuclei and the movement of nuclei in the electric field. Therefore the range of chemistry was restricted to the nature of matter around us. However the meaning of matter denotes that the substances are made up of atoms and molecules. Nowadays Quantum and Nuclear chemistry are currently well developed under the chemical science but it categorized as a science based on the use of concept which describe the phenomenon matter to atomic or molecular scale.  So the field of chemistry is still, on our human scale very broad and it is everywhere is accurate.

 

Three decades of Chemistry education in International level

The IUPAC role in pure and applied chemistry was established in 1950s. The junior author (KVS) was mesmerized by the chemical demonstrations of the legendary Hubert N. Alyea, A lifelong affair with third international components of chemical education in august 1977 at Ljublajana, The involvement of KVS with the Committee of teaching of chemistry (1977-1980), to serving as India’s national representative(1981-1985), to serve as CTC Secretary(1986-1990) and then as (1991-1995).

The first Decade

When the CTC- under C.N.R. Rao and David Waddington realized the urgent need to upgrade student laboratories in developing countries, an action plan was formulated in 1979. Its implementation began at DU under the title, “Locally produced Low Cost Equipment (LPLCE) for teaching of chemistry”. The field-testing part of the project, catalyzed by generous support from UNESCO made spectacular progress beginning in the late 1980s. The senior author (NKU) organized teacher training component under auspices of the center for professional development in higher education established at DU by the Indian University Grants Commission (UGC). BBC Open University made a documentary on the social dimension on the DU project.

The Second Decade

In the second decade, to start LPLCE was christened “Cost Effective Science Education”.  The new label provided the multidisciplinary orientation necessary for hands-on environment education. KVS strengthened the formal aspects of the teacher training program.

The Third Decade

The Indian adaptation, titled RASAYNIKA (Sanskrit word for Chemistry) was introduced in 2004. The award was chaired by the reputed Indian industrialist G. H. Singhania, who was made an IUPAC fellow in 2006. The award function was held during Chemical Education Week in January 2005 [4].

 

Chemistry education in next millennium

The shaping of chemistry was fundamentally important. At the beginning of 21^st century, many forces shape the teaching and learning chemistry. So shapes depend on some factors. There are some practical ways for chemistry education to respond to those shaping forces, which include:

(a) Fundamental changes in the counters of chemistry as defined by new interfaces and research areas.

(b) Changes in our understanding of how students learn and how that applies to chemistry education.

(c) The wide spread implementation of computer and information technologies to visualize complex scientific phenomena and,

(d) External forces such as global concerns about energy and water resources and the environment, and the level of chemical literacy and public understanding of science.

Over the next decade we should take challenges related to energy in following fields:

·         Fuel cell chemistry and technologies

·         Materials for solar energy capture and storage

·         High-energy density, rechargeable storage batteries

·         Biomass as a renewable fuel source

·         Superconducting materials for energy distribution

·         Technologies and catalysts for coal as a fuel

·         Carbon dioxide sequestration

·         Lower cost, lighter weight, more durable, recyclable polymers for vehicles.

Finally we need to understand and address the energy crisis that exist in many part of our globe today and the challenge of findings sufficient food to meet daily caloric requirements for our body’s internal combustion engines and sufficient fuel to prepare that food.

In addition to required courses in analytical, organic, inorganic and physical, should study interdisciplinary course. Those interested in the environmental field also should take courses in environmental studies and become familiar with current legislation and regulations. Nowadays computer course are also become important along with chemistry. So along with chemistry can be increased computer skills to modeling and simulation tasks. Statistics are also useful in chemistry because both chemists and materials scientists need the ability to apply basic statistical techniques [5].

Conclusion

Therefore interdisciplinary study becomes very meaningful in this field. The amount of gain of knowledge or idea is not restricted, as much as possible can gain and use in relevant fields. Because all disciplines are relatively connected to each other and used. So the higher education helps to coordinate between different disciplines. Rashtriya Uchattar Shiksha Abhiyan is a centrally sponsored scheme which provides strategic funding to state higher and technical institutions.

References

[1] N. C. Datta, “Hellenic Connection, Cinnabar and Maharasa” in The story of Chemistry, University press, India, 2005, ch. 2, sec. 2, p. 23.

[2] D. Jolly, “Chemistry in the Middle Ages- Alchemy” in History of Chemistry, IVY Publishing House, Delhi, 2000, ch. 2, pp. 23-27.

[3] P. C. Ray, “The earliest times to the middle of the century A.D.” in A History of Hindu Chemistry, 1902.

[4] Scientifiques Sans Frontiers, “Chemistry International” in The news magazine of the international Union of Pure & Applied Chemistry(IUPAC), 2008, vol.30, no. 2.

[5] Peter MAHAFFY, “The future shape of Chemistry Education”, Chemistry Education: Research and Practice, 2004, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 229-245.