Higher Education in Electronics and Communication Engineering

Submitted by

VINAY JHA PILLAI

Higher Education in Electronics and Communication Engineering

INTRODUCTION

Higher education is ready for a major revolution. For those who wonder about future of education, this proclamation will come as no surprise. It is so typical of us to think and talk about the changes to come, and we have become an expert at it. Our familiarity with upcoming change, however, may have numbed us to what it will really mean. Technology has made great and deep impact on us. Technology has changed the way we order life. It has moved us toward a different kind of economy and modified ways of living. We are in the midst of changing from an energy-based to a knowledge-based economy which will alter the rules of international economic competition, thrusting universities into roles they have not traditionally played. Two of the greatest challenges our institutions face are those of harnessing the power of digital technology and responding to the information revolution. Addition to it, our institutions are looking forward to the needs of industries to frame their curriculum. To a great extend, institutions are exploiting the available resources and technology with constant updation.  The opportunities and challenges technology presents are far greater than at any previous time in higher education's 750-year history.

There is still debate about exactly where higher education's history began. Irrespective of whether it was in Paris, Oxford, or Bologna, historians agree that it began at the start of the 13th century. It has not changed much since. Fundamentally, higher education is still a process of imparting knowledge by means of lectures to those who want to acquire it. This essay describes the forces accelerating change in Higher education with respect to Electronics and Communication Engineering, raises difficult questions that will help us determine what a transformed learning environment could be, and offers some thoughts on why it is important for higher education to take the lead in realizing that vision.

 

 

WHAT IS ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING?

The word “electronics” is a combination of two words, “electron” and “technology”, electron being derived from the Greek word “elecktron” which means amber. The word was first referred to describe amber's attractive properties by William Gilbert in his 1600 text De Magnete. In physics, an electron refers to a particle of charge quantified in terms of Coulombs. The word “electric” was first used by Francis Bacon to describe materials like amber that attracted other objects. The first usage of the English word electricity is ascribed to Sir Thomas Browne in his 1646 work, Pseudodoxia Epidemica. Scientists like Einstein, Feynman, and Maxwell used the word “electron” more frequently to elaborate on their findings of quantum physics and electromagnetic theory.

Accepting electronics as a circuit science is now generally referred to as a subject that deals with the flow of electricity or current and its behavior when it passes through a conducting material or a semiconductor to precise. Various electrical phenomenon like voltage, current, power, watts, amperes are used to quantify various metrics in the circuit science engineering domain. Electronics is not confined to circuit science and semi conductor theory as such but a general intuition with the word “electronics” gets linked with the notion of flow of charge carriers in a conducting material. Cambers Twentieth Century Dictionary (1972) defines electronics as "The science and technology of the conduction of electricity in a vacuum, a gas, or a semiconductor, and devices based thereon". Electronics is hence an age old concept which gradually evolved and is now a significant part of human existence.

 

EDUCATION EVOLUTION

Electronics and Communication engineering today is centered around reliable communication networks and data transactions at high speeds. The internet has become the backbone of almost all existing communication networks. Electronics and Communication is a vast field in itself.

Communication, signals and systems, control systems, power electronics, computer networks, image processing all integrate to form a part of electronics as a whole. Initially, Electronics and  Engineering was a small domain of Science. Science has been ever evolving reflecting the human mind and education has always been an integral part of learning and evolving. Education system has been such that it has tried to practice the human mind to think, learn, unlearn, relearn and innovate. Alvin Toffler said “The illiterate of the 21st century will not be those who cannot read and write, but those who cannot learn, unlearn, and relearn.” To keep this motivation going, education system has slowly structured itself in the technical side to aid learning.

In the ancient period, science was taught to students through practical understanding with nature. For example, when a stone is dropped in water, it creates ripples and with time, these ripples settle down to become still water. This is a good example to illustrate stability of a system in a very basic sense. The example coated is associated with nature rather than a laboratory with equipments to illustrate simple science. Not to negate the current methods to make one understand, but to state that as time as passed, sophistication is reflected in every aspect of life and in some way or the other, has caused more damage than good!

 CURRENT TRENDS IN THE INDIAN HIGHER EDUCATION

Students who obtain at least 60 per cent marks in the B.Tech. course and a high GATE score can explore higher study options, especially the M.Tech. course. A GATE score makes them eligible for scholarships for doing the course.A high score in GATE, a national-level examination conducted by the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) every year, is a prerequisite for M.Tech. admission. Those with an engineering or architecture degree, and those in the final year of the degree course, may appear for the examination.

For admissions, almost all institutions give 70 per cent weight to the GATE score and 30 per cent to the merit in the qualifying examinations. In fact, the main criterion is the GATE score. Only if applicants with the score are unavailable will selection be made through an entrance test or by considering the marks in the qualifying examination. Students should note that even some public sector undertakings are using the score to recruit engineers. Prepare well to obtain a high percentile or score.Graduates in electronics and communications have several higher study options. Specialisations or options in the M.Tech. course include embedded systems, VLSI design, bioinformatics, nanotechnology, digital systems and communication, opto-electronics, digital signal processing, cyber security, robotics, and software engineering.

Master of Design (M.Des), MBA, and MS information technology courses and postgraduate diploma programmes in industrial management and system software development are other options.The Cochin University of Science and Technology (Cusat) offers an M.Tech. course in electronics with specialisation in digital electronics, microwave, and radar electronics. Those with a B.Tech. degree in electronics and communication, electrical engineering, and electronics and instrumentation with at least 60 per cent marks and a GATE score may apply. The university conducts an M.Tech. course in opto-electronics and laser technology, admitting graduates in electronics and communication, electronics, electrical engineering, and electrical and electronics engineering. At least 60 per cent marks in the degree course and a GATE score are required. (www.cusat.nic.in)

IIT programmes

IIT Madras offers M.Tech. courses in communication systems; digital signal processing; micro electronics; and VLSI design. (www.iitm.ac.in)

IIT Delhi offers a course in electronics and communication engineering. (www.iitd.ac.in). IIT Guwahati offers a course in signal processing and VLSI (www.iitg.ernet.in). IIT Kharagpur conducts an M.Tech. course with specialisations in fibre optics and light-wave engineering, micro electronics and VLSI design, telecommunication system engineering, and embedded system engineering. (http://gate.iitkgp.ac.in/mtech)

At NITs

The Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering of the National Institute of Technology (NIT), Kozhikode, conducts M.Tech. programmes in electronics design and technology; micro electronics and VLSI design; telecommunication; and signal processing. Graduates in electronics and communication with a GATE score are eligible for admission. Selection is based on the GATE score. (www.nitc.ac.in)

NIT Surathkal conducts an M.Tech. course in electronics and communication. (www.nitk.ac.in).

The Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, conducts M.Tech. programmes in digital communication engineering and VLSI and embedded system design. Graduates in electronics, electronics and communication engineering, and telecommunication with a GATE score are eligible for admission. (www.manit.ac.in)

Amrita School of Engineering, Ettimadai, Coimbatore, offers M.Tech. programmes in VLSI design, embedded systems, wireless networks and applications, cyber security, and so on. Graduates in electronics and communication with at least 60 per cent marks are eligible for admission.

Selection is based on academic merit and interview or entrance test. Those with a GATE score will get preference. (www.amrita.edu) The PSG College of Technology, Peelamedu, Coimbatore, affiliated to Anna University, offers ME and M.Tech. programmes in communication systems, VLSI design, biometrics and cyber security, and nanotechnology.

Electronics and communication graduates with a valid GATE or TANCET score are eligible for admission. (www.psgtech.edu)

Delhi Technological University, Delhi, conducts an M.Tech. course in signal processing and digital design, microwave and optical communication, and VLSI design and embedded system. (www.dce.edu)

Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, conducts an ME course in electronics and communication engineering, information security, and nanotechnology. (www.bitmesra.ac.in)

Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, offers an ME course in communication engineering, micro electronics, and embedded systems. (www.bitsadmission.com; www.bits-pilani.ac.in)

The Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering under Anna University, Coimbatore, offers ME programmes in communication engineering, VLSI design, digital communication and network engineering, optical communication, digital signal processing, wireless technologies, and embedded system technologies (www.annauniv.ac.in).

M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore, conducts M.Tech. courses in digital communication engineering and digital electronics and communication (www.msrit.edu).

Atal Bihari Vajpayee Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management, Gwalior, conducts an M.Tech. programme. Computer science and engineering, electronics and communication and electrical engineering graduates with at least 60 per cent marks and a GATE score are eligible for admission.

The Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management, Kerala, at Technopark in Thiruvananthapuram conducts an MS course in information technology. Those with a degree in any branch of engineering or technology with minimum 60 per cent marks are eligible for admission. Selection is based on an entrance test and an interview. Students with at least 65 per cent marks in the qualifying examination are eligible to get a scholarship of Rs.8,000 a month (www.iiitmk.ac.in).

IMPACT OF MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY

Technology has advanced magnanimously and the pressure is now on the students to know everything and anything that is up in the market as a consumer electronic device. Students who take up engineering, especially electronics and communication engineering are often unaware of the course structure and what are its further implications in their career front. Previously, students were not as confused as to what stream leads to what kind of a job and where to they fit themselves well. But current education systems simply creates pressure in the minds of the students and parents as to how to choose a stream in engineering and what is the job opportunities related to it.

A lot of introspection is required to intricately design a course structure for technical education. A decade back, one could conveniently say that there was significant distinction between a hardware oriented technical course and a software oriented technical course. But now things have changed and the fast moving modern world only demands of an inter-disciplinary course which can fetch employment in many different industries. Every subject is interlinked to every other subject and this inter- disciplinary aspect of making a course well suited for multiple industries of hardware or software or hardware-software co-design has played a significant role in making a structure of a particular technical course.

Once the student has chosen the field of interest of electronics and communication, he/she is less motivated to do the basic understanding of the subjects like signals and systems, basic communication theory, electronic circuits to name a few. The reason for lack of motivation is them being prejudice that those subjects are made to kill their confidence and only make them slog to pass an examination of 100 marks in which they got to score a 40 to pass through. Laboratories concerned to subjects are also taken as a burden rather than enthusiasm to learn and understand the basic concepts taught in class. As time has passed, education in the technical side has simply degraded and not many quality engineers are produced to contribute towards a better country technically.

Students today face the pressure of keeping themselves updated with the latest versions of software and hardware as a part of peer pressure. The basic understanding being novice to them are simply getting lost in the rat race to know every trendy technical advancement and trying to be the so called “techie tech”. Lot of research goes in to make those high speed gadgets but as Moore’s law has predicted that the no. of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles every 18 months is simply a pressure point to technical education.

Technical education in our country has always been talked relative to the IITs , IISc and NITs where the quality of education imparted are supposedly far more better than the same being taught in a regular engineering college. It is also seen that these institutes have actually progressed in technical learning and imparting knowledge and also growing in terms of research and innovation. Statistically, a student who has completed a degree in electronics and communication from the top technical institutes holds a better opportunity in the market than a student who has passed out of any other engineering college in the country. The point of reflection is how these institutes are working towards a better higher education than the others. By simple observations, one can make out that these institutes take up huge projects from various research organizations funded well enough, and faculties and students work hand in hand to complete those complex tasks with deadlines. They also employ internet based learning, lectures given on the internet, e-learning, collaborating with other foreign universities to explore other perspectives of the same concepts. So with these institutes as a reference, one can say the country is growing in terms of technical education. There are other universities and institutes who are trying to establish themselves with quality learning, excellence and service.

 

Conclusion

The challenge to educators is to preserve the essence of traditional education while changing with the times. Our highest obligation to society and to ourselves is to work within the context of change to ensure that it follows a trajectory of maximum benefit to society.

 

REFERENCES:

[1] http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-educationplus/higher-study-options-in-electronics-and-communication/article2666428.ece

[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_engineering

History of Economic Thought and the Discipline of Economics in India

History of Economic Thought and the Discipline of Economics in India

M. Usha 1341802

Economic phenomena are diverse and the structures of economies are essentially dynamic and complex, amenable to changes from time to time. Economic universe, on the other hand, has logic of its own. It has an inherent order through which there is a constant exchange between rational human beings, each seeking to attain maximum gain. Economics, as a science, is an attempt to understand this orderly working of the economy, and an individual in his business of life with a goal to maximizing his gain choosing among his innumerable wants with the limited resources he has at his disposal. Most economic thinkers agree with Alfred Marshall, a leading 19th-century English economist, that economics is “a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life; it examines that part of individual and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment, and with the use of the material requisites of wellbeing” (Marshall, 1890). English economist Lionel Robbins, in the 20th century defines Economics as “the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between (given) ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.” (Robbins, 1945)

As the structure of economies change over time, the science of economics also changes as the tools and analytical methods to study the economic phenomena, its working, problems and solutions keep changing. That is the reason, Economics as a science and discipline has always been influenced by the prevailing social structure, system of governance, institutional structures, ethics and norms. For example Kautilya’s “Arthashastra” is based on the then religious, spiritual and social systems, customs and standards. The individualism of the classical economist’s is essentially a product of the industrial revolution.

The systematic study of economics is of recent origin, but economic analysis has always been prevalent across the world in one form or the other. The science of Economics is as old as human life. The initial attempts to study economics as a subject as part of the education system were first made in Europe at the end of the 17th and the beginning of 18th century (Paul, 1999). The effective birth of Economics as a separate discipline may be traced to the year 1776 (Paul, 1999), when the Scottish philosopher Adam Smith, now known as the “Father of Economics”, published An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The Wealth of Nations, as its title suggests, is a book about economic development and the policies that can either promote or hinder it. In its practical aspects the book is an attack on the protectionist doctrines of the mercantilists and a brief for the merits of free trade. The study of economics in India can be traced back as early as 4th B.C when Kautilya came out with his Arthashastra which provides an authoritative account of the political and economic thought that prevailed in ancient India (Paul, 1999).

Historically, Indian economic thought can be divided in to four periods:

1.      Ancient Economic Thought

Ancient Indian scriptures like the Vedas (Rig, Sama, Yajur, Aharva), Upanishads, Brahmanas, epics, Smrities (particularly those of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Shukra, Vidur, Kamandok and Narad) give an account of the ancient economic philosophies. While Arthashastra and Nitishastra deal with production and exchange, Dharmashastra lays down the rules to be followed in consumption and distribution.

Varta and Arthashastra were the set of guidelines as far as material life was concerned. Varta has been defined as a branch dealing with agriculture, commerce, cattle breeding, money lending and artisanship. Arthashastra covered a much wider field with its insights on jurisprudence, politics and economics and life as a whole. Consumption was based on the principle of Kama, Artha, and Dharma ( aesthetic, economic and religious aspects of worldly life) as separated from Moksha ( or the subject related to non-worldly life).

The ancient economic thought recognized the four factors of production, land, labour, capital and organization. Land was regarded as the source of all wealth, with many kings laying down their lives for it.

2.      Medieval Economic Thought

Medieval economic thought was basically shaped by the rulers during that time. Rulers like Ala-ud-din Khilji, Mohammad Tughlaq and Firozshah Tughlaq introduced economic reorganization and improvements during 8th century to 15th century after which Sher Shah Suri and Akbar brought in various transformations.

Alauddin Khilji deliberately controlled the markets in order to keep the  basic necessities of life at a cheaper rate. This was done with an n intention to maintain a large army for his empire and to prevent rebellion on account of dwindling treasury. Mohammad Tughlaq brought in a new system of token coins, which failed as its monopoly could not be maintained. Firozshah Tughlaq realized the role of the state in production and employment way back in and engaged in a large number of public works in the form of construction of canals, public buildings etc. He reformed the taxation system on the basis of the laws of Quran by introducing four types of taxes ( Khiraj, Zakat, Jizya and Khams). Sher Shah Suri graded and fixed land rent as per its productivity and brought in reforms in the land revenue system.

Far reaching changes were brought in by Akbar in the form of reorganization of the revenue system and promotion of state enterprises. While, the rent of the land was fixed on the basis of last ten year’s average price of land, peasants were brought directly under the state by abolishing the power of jagirs.

3.      Nineteenth Century Economic Thought

The foundations of modern Indian Economics were laid in the early British period by the leading thinkers of that time, namely Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt and Gokhale. The economic philosophy was built as a reaction to the misgivings of the British Empire and to bring in systemic changes to eradicate of widespread poverty prevalent that time.

 Their prescription was to bring in a welfare state which would work for the interests of the general public at large. They wanted the heavy tax burden on the Indians to be reduced and the budget surplus to be spent for the betterment of people rather than on military expenses. They advocated the permanent fixation of land tax and the representation of tax payers in the body which controlled the government expenditure.

4.      Twentieth Century Economic Thought

During this time the economic philosophy verged on the practical problems faced by the country rather than on abstract concepts. The prominent thinkers of the time like C. N. Vakil, D. R. Gadgil, Gyan Chand, V. K. R.V. Rao, and R. Balakrishna favored planned economic development by the state and that Laissez Faire is not suitable for India. The balanced utilization of resources suggested the development of agriculture along with all kinds of large scale, small and medium enterprises.

Economics as a subject in India was first advocated by Dadabhai Naoroji but it was Mahadev Govind Ranade who first gave shape to Indian Economics and actually succeeded in establishing it as a separate subject. He is hailed as the “Father of Indian Economics”

B.R. Ambedkar favored radical ideas even in those times by supporting free banking (against monopoly of printing legal tender), gold standard, decentralized planning, individual liberty, private property rights etc. Eminent economists like Rajaji and B. R. Shenoy also advocated economic freedom as against the principally socialist structure prevailing at that time. Unfortunately a lot of those pertinent economic thought by eminent economists like V S Srinivasa Sastri, C. Rajagopalachari, B R Shenoy, N A Palkhivala, Bankimchandra Chattopadhyay, Minoo Masani were marginalized and don’t find mention in the history of economic thought.

Economics as a Discipline of Study in Universities in India:

Economics is essentially a science which deals with the optimum utilization of resources given the fact that human wants are unlimited and there are limited resources with which to satisfy them. It is the science of choice, be it in the household sector, industrial, agricultural, services or the government sector. Economics has broadly two branches: The Microeconomics and Macroeconomics.

Microeconomics deals with the individual units of the economy and its behavior like the individual household, firm, buyer, seller, producer or consumer. Macroeconomics studies the economy as a whole in the form of various sectors, industries its levels of employment, income, monetary policy, fiscal policy and economic growth of the economy as a whole.

Economics is a diverse subject as it deals with human behavior with respect to material pursuits, in his ordinary business of life, which in essence cannot be confined to any one-dimensional thought process. It has its linkages to society, geography, public policy, commerce, management, finance, mathematics and statistics. That is the reason why economics is offered both as a Science and Arts subject in universities at the graduation level. Economics degrees are available as Bachelor of Arts (B.A) and Bachelor of Science (B.Sc) course. As part of the B.Sc course, the emphasis is on statistical methods, quantitative and mathematical application in economic theories and concepts. Economics as part of a B.A course, the emphasis is more on the qualitative aspects of economics theories, concepts and models. Economics is often offered as part of a joint or combined honors degree, paired with subjects including history, sociology, psychology, mathematics, statistics, modern languages and politics. It is also part of diverse courses in law, management, commerce, engineering and computer science. It would be worthwhile to note the history of Economics as a separate discipline in some of the important Universities in the country.

History of the discipline of Economics in some of the Indian Universities:

Punjab University: The University was set up as early as 1882. After the partition of the country, the teaching of Economics in this University was centered in Government College, Hoshiarpur under the guidance of Professor K.K. Dewett. His hands were strengthened by the appointment of Professor S.B. Rangnekar in 1951. The location of the department was shifted to the Chandigarh Campus in 1958 and it continues to be a leading center of teaching, research and learning of economics in the region.
The department has the honor of having produced many well-known economists like Dr. Manmohan Singh (Prime Minister of India), Dr. G.K. Chadha (member Prime Minister's Economic Advisory Council and former Vice-Chancellor, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi) and Dr. B.S. Minhas Research activity in the department can be broadly classified into four groups viz. Industrial Economics, Money, Trade and Finance, Agricultural Economics and Development Studies. (http://economics.puchd.ac.in/)

University of Madras: The University of Madras, Department of Economics, began in 1912, is one of the earliest one to be set up. It was commissioned with a special and non-recurring grant sanctioned by the Government of India to the University of Madras. It was later bifurcated and Department of Econometrics was established in July 1980 (http://www.unom.ac.in/index.php?route=department/department/about&deptid=27) to focus exclusively on the quantitative aspects of the discipline. Since its inception, the department has focused on teaching and research in quantitative economics emphasizing theoretical, methodological and conceptual issues in economics along with applications to socially relevant economic issues and policies.

University of Calcutta : It was established in the year 1914.. It offers courses in MA, MPhil and PhD. Major thrust areas in which both theoretical and empirical research activities are being actively pursued are Urban Economics, Environmental Economics, Economics of the Informal Sector, Trade and Development, Trade and Environment, Agricultural Economics, Gender Studies, Economics of Child Labor, Political Economy, Economics of Education and Development Management. (http://www.caluniv.ac.in/academic/arts_economics.htm#estd)

Delhi University: The Delhi School of Economics is one of India’s premier and most sought after institutes of higher learning in the discipline of Economics. “The school was launched in 1949 by V.K.R.V. Rao, with the support of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. It grew out of a vision that a newly independent nation, which aspired to social and economic progress, needed a vibrant centre for advanced studies in the social sciences. The department of economics, along with its sister departments of geography and sociology, has produced many of the country’s leading academics, educators, administrators, policy makers, corporate leaders and journalists. Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, and the late Sukhamoy Chakravarty, one of the architects of India’s Five Year Plans, have all taught here.”  (http://econdse.org/history/)

GujaratUniversity: It was established in the year 1954 . Currently the department is involved in post-graduate teaching leading to M.A. and M.Phil degrees. “Special areas of specialization include Mathematical Economics and Econometrics, Quantitative Economics, Industrial Economics, Agricultural Economics and Financial Institutions and Markets at M.A. level. At M.Phil level students are offered specialization in Public Finance and Mathematical Economics and Econometrics.”  (http://www.gujaratuniversity.org.in/web/WebDEconomics.asp)

Bangalore University : “The department was established in 1962 in Central College as a postgraduate department of the University of Mysore. In July 1964, with the establishment of Bangalore University, the then Centre of Economics came under the jurisdiction of the new University as the Department of Economics. A three years B.A Economics (Hons.) Course was introduced in 1967 with the aid from Danforth Foundation, USA. The course was modelled on the American pattern, headed by Dr. Quincy Adams. The M.A, Economics course was introduced in 1969 in the Central College Campus. In 1976, the Department was shifted to the Manasa Bhavan in the Jnanabharathi Campus of the University.” (http://www.bangaloreuniversity.ac.in/faculties/arts_dept_economics.aspx)

Conclusion:

Alfred Marshall in his eighth edition of “Principles of Economics” commented that “economic conditions are constantly changing, and each generation looks at its own problems in its own way” (Marshall, 1890). “Economics arose everywhere. But everywhere it was distinctive. Scientific and practical knowledge about the economy was conceptualized and institutionalized in different ways in different places, and for identifiable reasons.”  (http://understandingsociety.blogspot.in/2010/01/disciplines-of-economics.html)

 The education in economics as a whole in the world as well as India has also changed its paradigms in tune with the current state of affairs, trends and developments in the world. The following is a list of top 10 universities in the world in the discipline of Economics: (http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/university-subject-rankings/2013/economics-and-econometrics)

1. Harvard University, United States

2. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), United States

3. London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), United Kingdom

4. University of Chicago, United States

5. University of California, Berkeley (UCB), United States

6. Stanford University, United States

7. Princeton University, United States

8. Yale University, United States

9. University of Cambridge, United Kingdom

10.Columbia University, United States

 References:

http://econdse.org/history/. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2014, from http://econdse.org: http://econdse.org/history/

http://economics.puchd.ac.in/. (n.d.). Retrieved April 13, 2014, from http://economics.puchd.ac.in/: http://economics.puchd.ac.in/

http://understandingsociety.blogspot.in/2010/01/disciplines-of-economics.html. (2014). Retrieved April 12, 2014, from http://understanding.blogspot.in: http://understandingsociety.blogspot.in/2010/01/disciplines-of-economics.html

http://www.bangaloreuniversity.ac.in/faculties/arts_dept_economics.aspx. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2014, from http://www.bangaloreuniversity.ac.in: http://www.bangaloreuniversity.ac.in/faculties/arts_dept_economics.aspx

http://www.caluniv.ac.in/academic/arts_economics.htm#estd. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2014, from http://www.caluniv.ac.in: http://www.caluniv.ac.in/academic/arts_economics.htm#estd

http://www.cssscal.org/top_india.html. (2014, April 12). Retrieved 04 12, 2014, from http://cssscal.org: http://www.cssscal.org/top_india.html

http://www.gujaratuniversity.org.in/web/WebDEconomics.asp. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2014, from http://www.gujaratuniversity.org.in: http://www.gujaratuniversity.org.in/web/WebDEconomics.asp

http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/university-subject-rankings/2013/economics-and-econometrics. (2014, April). Retrieved April 12-04-2014, 2014, from www.topuniversities.com: http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/university-subject-rankings/2013/economics-and-econometrics

http://www.unom.ac.in/index.php?route=department/department/about&deptid=27. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2014, from http://www.unom.ac.in: http://www.unom.ac.in/index.php?route=department/department/about&deptid=27

Marshall, A. (1890). Principles of Economics. Macmillan and Co. Limited.

R.R.Paul. (1999). History of Economic Thought. Kalyani Publishers.

Robbins, L. (1945). An Essay on the Nature & Significance of Economic Science. Macmillan and Co. Limited.

 

How and when Computer Science Emerged as a Discipline in Higher Education

How and when Computer Science Emerged as a Discipline in Higher Education

Sreeja C. S.

Reg no 1345003

PhD Scholar

Christ university

The history of computer science began long before the modern discipline of computer science that emerged in the 20th century, and hinted at in the centuries prior. The progression, from mechanical inventions and mathematical theories towards the modern concepts and machines, formed a major academic field and the basis of a massive worldwide industry. The 1960s was a time of tremendous technological advancement. In the 1960's, computer science came into its own as a discipline, in  the same year the name "computer science" started to gain currency in the USA although not all academics agreed with the name [1].In fact, the term was coined by George Forsythe, a numerical analyst. The first computer science depart- ment was formed at Purdue University in 1962. The first person to receive a Ph. D. from a computer science department was Richard Wexelblat, at the University of Pennsylvania, in December 1965. During this decade, Stanford University also established departments of computer science, ASCII became the standard for 7-bit code information exchange, the Basic programming language was developed, Doug Engelbart invented the mouse, and the US Department of Defence commissioned the Arpanet, the precursor to today's Internet [2] [3].

Computer Science Education In India

In India the initial period 1955 to 1970 was a period of exploration with no specific government policies guiding to technology.The history of the development of computers in India is inextricably linked to the political history of India. The Directorate General of Technical Development of the Governmentof India drafted plans to support manufacture of all varieties of

items.Planning also has some very good features.The first plan realized the importance of higher technical education andfive Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) were planned. Later

the government also set up Regional Engineering Colleges(REC) one in each state of India to provide good quality technical  education. (RECs have now been renamed National Institutes

of Technology (NITs) [4].

Introducing computer in IITK

­

One of the computer installed early in India was an IBM1620 n August 1963 at the Indian Institute of Technoloy,Kanpur (IITK).It was the first computer with a FORTRAN compiler

to be installed in an educational institution in India.It was imported with financial assistance of theUSAgency for International Development (USAID) which channeled the funding through

the Kanpur IndoAmerican Program (KIAP).  KIAP was a consortium of nine major US Universities which assisted establishment of the IIT at Kanpur by sending visiting faculty members

and by assisting in the purchase of equipment.One of the major decisions taken by KIAP was to install a computer at IITK. 

The IBM 1620 was installed and maintained by IBM engineers.KIAP sent Harry D.Huskey of the University of California, Berkeley, and Forman S.Acton and Irving Rabinowitz from the Princeton University to educate the faculty and students of IITK on using the computer. As soon as the IBM 1620 started working a ten day intensive course on programming for the faculty of IITK was designed by this group. Huskey took a proactive step and instead of restrictingthe course to IITK faculty, he invited scientists, engineers, and the faculty members of other institutions in India to attend the course.  Each course had around 60 participants who were given hands on experience in FORTRAN programming and numerical methods.These courses which started in 1963 were conducted thrice a year.  The course was so popular that it was continued till 1975 by the IITK faculty after the American Professors left in 1965.  Over 1500 scientists working in a number of Universities and research laboratories were trained.  IITK  also  pioneered  by  introducing  in  1964  a  compulsory  course  in programming and numerical methods to all engineering students [5][6] [7].

 

Evolution of Computer science as a discipline in IITK

Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur was the first Institute in India to start Computer Science education. The initial "computer-related" courses were started at IIT Kanpur in August 1963 on an IBM 1620 system installed in the nation's first "computer classroom," a novelty then even in many North American and European universities. Gradually, the Institute drew upon some of the brightest young Indians in Computer Science to serve on its faculty and initiated an independent academic program in 1971, leading to Ph.D. and M. Tech. degrees. The undergraduate program started later, with the first batch graduating in 1983. The department was formally established in 1984. Many of the nation's leading experts, educationists and consultants in computer science today are the alumni of this department[8][9].

 This is the history of how computer science became a discipline in IIT Kanpur. It was a beginning of a new discipline which attracted so many students across India. After that so many universities started computer science as a department which includes Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology and Delhi University etc.

 

Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology

Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad (MNNIT or NIT Allahabad), formerly Motilal Nehru Regional Engineering College (MNREC), is a public higher education institute located in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India. The college has distinction of being first in the country to start an undergraduate programme in Computer Science & Engineering in 1976-77.It is one of the National Institutes of Technology, and like the rest of them, classified as an Institute of National Importance. In the survey carried out by ET Now-Economic Times jointly, MNNIT Allahabad was declared as the best engineering institution of North India and ranked No.1 in overall ranking[10].

 

Delhi University

 Department of Computer Science was established in University of Delhi, in the year 1981, with the objective of imparting quality education in the field of Computer Science. With rapidly evolving technology and the continuous need for innovation the department has always produced quality professionals, holding important positions in Information Technology industry in India and abroad. The Department started the three year Master of Computer Applications (MCA) programme in the year 1982, which was among the first such program in India [11][12].

 It is concluded that the initiatives taken by the government in the late 70s to promote  education  in  IT, setting  up  of  R  and D  centers  and funding  a  large number  of  research  projects with the assistance of the United Nations.Development Programme (UNDP) provided the human resources which enabled the IT industry to grow. Now many colleges have computer science as department like other natural sciences. Most of the universities are working on major research projects on computer sciences as well.

References

 

1 G.K. Gupta "Computer Science Curriculum Developments in the 1960s".

2. https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~shallit/Courses/134/history.html.

3.https://www.computer.org/portal/web/about/History-1960s.

4. V.Rajaraman ,"History Of Computing In India" (1955-2010).

5 http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/

6 http://www.iitk.ac.in/infocell/flier/cse1.pdf

7. http://www.iitk.ac.in/inf HISTORY OF COMPUTING IN INDIA

8. E.C.Subba Rao, "An Eye for Excellence: Fifty Innovative years of IIT, Kanpur", Harper‐

     Collins, India, New Delhi, 2008.

9.Ross Bassett, "Aligning India in the Cold war Era: Indian Technical Elites, the Indian 

    Institute of Technology at Kanpur and Computing in India and the United States", 

    Technology and Culture, Vol.50, Oct. 2009, pp.783‐810.

10 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motilal_Nehru_National_Institute_of_Technology_Allaha  bad

11.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dept._of_Computer_Science,_University_of_Delhi

12. http://www.mnnit.ac.in/index.php/institute/2011-06-27-07-44-36.html

13. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computer_science

History of Mechanical Engineering

 

1)      Abstract

Mechanical Engineering is probably the forerunner of many branches of Engineering. The History of Machines embraces a very broad period of the history of mankind, and can be studied from many perspectives. The seeding of Mechanical engineering started at ancient time and gradually progressed through the medieval time with the mankind. At different points of time, many people contributed a lot (say Archimedes, Newton, Arabs, Chinese etc.) and it grew very fast. Industrial revolution started at many places of the world which made the progress faster. Now Mechanical engineering is a fully developed science which handles enormous quantity of knowledge and machinery to make the life safe and comfortable.

 

2) Mechanical Engineering in ancient time

 

Many studies reveal that the evolution of Mechanical engineering started in China much before than in Europe till 16^th century. Extremely, ancient documents like the “Kao Gong Ji” (“Book of Diverse Arts”, 770-221 BC), reveal a concern for the development of science in all its forms: Astronomy, Biology, Mathematics, Physics and Engineering. Numerous written examples followed this work; compendiums on war machines, agricultural and hydraulic machines, textile machinery, clocks and automations follow one another through countless pages of diagrams and explanations; which dates from 2600-1100 BC and Su Song’s astronomical clock built in 1089, which, with its more than four hundred parts was undoubtedly a technological wonder.

 

Applications of Mechanical Engineering is evident in ancient and medieval period throughout the mankind. Many discoveries and works of Archimedes ( 287 BC – 212 BC ) have contributed  a lot to Mechanical engineering field. Widely known Archimedes principle was a turning point in the engineering field. He developed a screw mechanism to pump leaked water from the ship and the same principle is used in the screw pump, now a days. The claw of Archimedes also known as the ship shaker was an engineering marvel.  The claw consisted of a crane-like arm from which a large metal grappling hook was suspended. When the claw was dropped onto an attacking ship the arm would swing upwards, lifting the ship out of the water and possibly sinking it. Modern days experiments proved that it can be a reality. Focusing of sun light using mirrors to burn enemy ships was another invention by him.  In 2005 a number of Massachusetts Institute of Technology students conducted the experiment and proved that this is possible under certain conditions. He designed some pulley system to help sailors to lift heavy items which was otherwise very difficult to move.

Hero (or Heron ) of Alexandria (BC 10 – 70 AD)was an ancient Egyptian mathematician and  engineer who contributed a lot to the engineering field. He is considered as the greatest experimenter of antiquity. He is the inventor of first recorded steam engine. The first vending machine also is one of his many constructions.

3) Mechanical Engineering in Medieval time

During the years from 7th to 15th century, the era called the Islamic Golden Age, there were remarkable contributions from Muslim inventors in the field of Mechanical technology. Islam spread to the confines of the known world during the Middle Ages and Arabic became the vehicle of culture in its area of influence. The “House of Wisdom”, founded in Baghdad (9th C), contributes to the apparition of the book entitled “Ingenious Devices” written by the three Banu Musa brothers, whose pages contain the diagrams of one hundred machines and mechanisms. Some machines were copies of those produced by Hero and Philo but many others were improvements of these or new models.

 

Al Jazari (1136– 1206) the Muslim polymath, in his “Book of knowledge of ingenious Mechanical devices” in 1206 discussed 100 Mechanical devices along with instructions on how to construct them.  These include  fountains, clocks, water wheels and automatons with a precision of detail in both drawings and explanations that had been unknown up to that time. His machines reveal an increase in complexity that turned out to be not only useful but also of spectacular appearance, as was the case of the elephant clock that combines Mechanical engineering and design in equal parts.

 

The Re-birth of Western Europe in the14th, 15th and 16th centuries marked a stage of renewed activity and vitality on a level of arts, sciences and literature, as it was sought to leave behind the stagnation of the Middle Ages. Unlike what happened in the Middle Ages, the opening up of Renaissance society paved the way to the spread of machines. The 15th century can be taken as the high period of machine development, with celebrities like Leonardo da Vinci and Francesco Di Giorgio whose success was partly due to an environment that was open to their creativity and new ideas. Parallel to this, an interest in the theoretical aspects of machines led to a recovery of the knowledge of Antiquity with the study of authors from the Greek and Roman culture.

 

The publication of knowledge in the form of treatises began at the end of the 15th century. A first line of activity was the study of machine mechanics as an application of physics, by well-known figures such as Guidobaldo del Monte and Galileo Galilei. The second line consisted of a development towards a discipline in the shape of a rational collection of machines, outstanding of which were the machine collections of the aforementioned Francesco Di Giorgio and Agostino Ramelli

The Machine Renaissance, from Italy, spread throughout Western Europe from the second half of the 15th century with outstanding works such as Georgius Agricola’s “De Re Metallica” and Jacobus Strada’s “Kunstliche Abris allerhand Wasser” .

 

The printing press was a decisive factor in the dissemination of these treatises. Not only the text but also the accompanying illustrations attained a quality hitherto unknown in the previous books on machines that had been painstakingly copied by scribes. Although some significant treatises have survived to the present in the form of manuscripts, most authors published printed books whose readers no longer needed to belong to the privileged classes. Machine knowledge became popular and spread on a qualitatively different scale from previous periods.

 

Important breakthroughs in the foundations of Mechanical engineering occurred in England during the 17th century when Sir Isaac Newton both formulated the three Newton's Laws of Motion and developed Calculus, the mathematical basis of physics. Newton was reluctant to publish his methods and laws for years, but he was finally persuaded to do so by his colleagues much to the benefit of all mankind. German mathematician and philosopher, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 – 1716) is also credited with creating Calculus during the same time frame.

4) Mechanical Engineering during Industrial revolution

This period in history arose after the accumulation of knowledge from preceding eras and due to the coming together of a series of factors that resulted in a period of continuous advancement and progress that led to a change of focus, both social and engineering. The construction of the steam engine by J. Watt (1736-1819) was a turning point, but on a Mechanical level maybe establishing the search for automation in every field was more important. The machines began to replace people as a result of the new technologies that were being discovered in agriculture, mining or textile industry. A fine example of this generalized progress came about in the sphere of textile engineering, where developments arose in every field (spinning, weaving and sewing, by the men like Arkwright, Hargreaves and Crompton). The industrial evolution was continuous and in very few years all industries that were unable to move forward with technology, became obsolete.

Actually the industrial revolution did not spread and appear everywhere at the same speed. For example, while England was the pioneer in introducing mechanized and automated industries,  neighboring  France was caught up in a social conflict that set it aside from this type of progress.

 

During the early 19th century in England, Germany and Scotland, the development of machine tools led Mechanical engineering to develop as a separate field within engineering, providing manufacturing machines and the engines to power them. The first British professional society of Mechanical engineers was formed in 1847, Institution of Mechanical Engineers. On the European continent, Johann Von Zimmermann (1820–1901) founded the first factory for grinding machines in Germany in 1848.

In the United States, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) was formed in 1880, becoming the third such professional engineering society, after the American Society of Civil Engineers (1852) and the American Institute of Mining Engineers (1871). The first schools in the United States to offer an engineering education were the United States Military Academy in 1817, an institution now known as Norwich University in 1819, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1825. Education in Mechanical engineering has historically been based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science.

5) Conclusion

Comparing the “History of Mankind” with the “History of Machines” reveals a parallel evolution throughout the history. Technical progress has led man to use his imagination and resources not only for his own benefit but also as a way of providing help to the whole mankind. This work has always been done jointly and under the considerable influence of the scientific and political environment of the time. Perhaps the most appropriate example of this type of development is the Industrial Revolution, which, as we have seen, gave way to automated industries and the replacement of men by machines. A “History of Machines” which is also the history of Mechanical engineering will never be complete, but this review will help to understand how the minds of “Mechanical engineers” gradually evolved and changed, adapting to their era while looking to a “beyond” that led them to discover new and improved machines and mechanisms that would become a new step on an endless flight of stairs.

 

6) References

 

a)      http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Wisdom

b)      The evolution and development of Mechanical Engineering  through large cultural areas INVE_MEM_2008_58272.pdf

c)      Wikipedia – Mechanical Engineering

d)     en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria

 

Development of Mathematics in India

Development of Mathematics in India

Sameena Tarannum, Reg. no. 1345302, Research Scholar, Christ University

A Philosopher and Mathematician René Descartes (1596-1650) said "Mathematics is a more powerful instrument of knowledge than any other that has been bequeathed to us by human agency."

Mathematics is generally presented 'ready-made' to students with procedures, methods and applications in systematic and logical order. However, like any other academic subject, Mathematics also has a history which is rich in astonishing inventions and breakthroughs. This history gives a narrative and human context which adds colour and context to the discipline.  

Starting from the representation of numbers, through the methods of arriving at the solutions of unknown equations, to the expansion of classy techniques in managing the infinite and the infinitesimals, there has been an extensive variation in the choice of approaching, visualizing and understanding the problems and solutions amongst the Mathematicians.

The aim of this essay is to present a critical overview of Mathematics education in higher education level in India which typically refers to Mathematics taught at the undergraduate and post-graduate levels and would also cover research Mathematics. Only a tiny fraction of the Indian population (1.2 billion strong) enters higher education and is expanding rapidly over a last decade. India is therefore faced with the triangle of quality, quantity and equality.

 Mathematics in India has a very extended and consecrated history. Sulbasutras, the oldest existing texts (prior to 800 BCE) clearly state and make use of the so-called Pythagorean theorem. By the time of Aryabhata (c. 499 CE), the Indian Mathematicians were fully acquainted with most of the Mathematics that we currently teach at the elementary level in school. Starting with Aryabhata in the 5th century and extending up to Narayana Pandita of the 14th century, the Indian Mathematicians have blazed a trial in the study of several branches of Mathematics that include obtaining recurrence relation for the construction of sine table, finding solutions to unknown equations.

In the valley of the Indus river of India, the world's oldest civilization had developed its own system of Mathematics. The Vedic ShulbaSutras show that the earliest geometrical and Mathematical inquiries amongst the Indians arose from certain requirements of their religious rituals. Although Vedic mathematicians are known primarily for their computational genius in Arithmetic and Algebra, the basis and inspiration for the whole of Indian Mathematics is geometry. The beginnings of algebra can be traced to the constructional geometry of the Vedic priests, which are preserved in the ShulbaSutras.

India has the third largest higher education system in the world (after China and the USA) suggests that there is a great deal of Mathematics around as well. India is also home to some institutions where world class research in Mathematics is carried out. A sturdy group of Indian Mathematicians have been contributing to the growth of many areas of Mathematics. The legendary genius Srinivasa Ramanujan has inspired and stimulated generations of young Indians towards taking up Mathematics as a calling.

From twentieth century, Mathematical Sciences is growing exponentially. In India, the growth of Mathematical Sciences has not been less spectacular. In the first three decades of twentieth century, only one university, namely, Calcutta University was producing PhD theses and today about a hundred of universities are producing PhDs in Mathematics. In fact, during the first twenty five years of its existence, IIT Kanpur has produced about three times the number of these produced by the entire country in the first five decades of this century.

As mentioned, the first set of theses came from Calcultta University and then followed by Madras University and this had to do great deal with the founding in the Indian Mathematical Society in 1907 which had its headquarters in Madras. However, solemn research started in the year 1927. In this period, we had Srinivas Ramanujan from Madras University who contributed a lot to the world as a well-known Mathematician. 

The credit for starting research in North India goes to Ganesh Prasad who brought some inspiration for it from Calcutta University where he had served as Professor of Applied Mathematics during 1914-1917. He then continued his teaching in Benaras Hindu University from 1917 to 1923 and gave new crescendos to research and founded Benaras Mathematical Society which was renamed to Bharat Ganit Parishad.  Bombay University was started at the same time as Calcutta and Madras universities but it produced its first PhD thesis in Mathematics in the year 1942. 

The Indian Statistical Institute also contributed to the development of Operations Research in India by Prof. Mahalanobis. Two other centres Defence Science Organisation and Delhi University laid research in the same field and this led to the founding of the Operations Research Society of India. Research in Applied Mathematics developed greatly due to the starting of five Indian Institutes of Technology, the strengthening of Mathematics departments in regional colleges of engineering and the setting up of the Department of Applied Mathematics in Indian Institute of Science at Bangalore.

The most prestigious school of Mathematics is at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Bombay. During more than four decades of its existence, this school has done tremendous work of international standards in many areas of pure Mathematics.

All these universities have contributed immensely and these have laid a foundation to the development of Mathematics in all the universities in India.

 

References:

[1] J. N. Kapur, "Development of Mathematical Sciences in India during the twentieth century," International Journal of History of Science, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 389-407, 1992.

[2] M. McCartney, "History of Mathematics in higher education curriculum," Mathematical Sciences HE curriculum Innovation Project, 2012.